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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special thanks to Ge Jian and all at the Grasslands Foundation in Beijing and Hohhot, notably Water Xu, Tselmeg and Han. And, as so often in the past, I thank Alatan, Professor of English, Inner Mongolia University of Technology, Hohhot, without whose trilingual help I would feel lost. Others who helped in the creation of this book are: Goyo Reston, Tsendee and Batmunkh, who provided vital help in Mongolia; Professor Diimajav Erdenebaatar in Ulaanbaatar, chief archaeologist of Gol Mod 2; Professor Wang Zhihao and Zhang Ziyang (‘Mr Shark’) in the Bronze Museum, Ordos City; Ursula Brosseder, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität, Bonn; Tsagaan Törbat, Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Archaeology, Ulaanbaatar; Odbaatar and Gelegdorj Eregzen, National History Museum, Ulaanbaatar; Ding Ding of the Oriental Holding Group, Ordos City; and finally the late and very deeply lamented Igor de Rachewiltz, School of Asian and Pacific Studies, Australian National University, Canberra. Finally, thanks to Henry Vines and his team at Transworld; to Richenda Todd for her meticulous editing; and to Michele Topham and all at Felicity Bryan Agency.
PICTURE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All photos in the illustration section are courtesy of the author unless otherwise stated. Every effort has been made to obtain the necessary permissions with reference to copyright material. We apologize for any omissions in this respect and will be pleased to make the appropriate acknowledgments in future editions.
Page 1: Coronet photograph courtesy of the Inner Mongolia Museum, Hohhot.
Page 3: Weapon imagery: © G. Ganbold and S. Enkhbold, in Gelegdorj Eregzen (ed.), Treasures of the Xiongnu (see Bibliography).
Page 5: Gol Mod grave excavations: © Diimajav Erdenebaatar; cutaway of Noyon Uul ‘terrace tomb’: © Natalia Polosmak.
Page 6: Textile imagery: © Treasures of the Xiongnu (see above); bronze cauldron photograph: © Diimajav Erdenebaatar.
Page 7: All images: © Diimajav Erdenebaatar.
INDEX
Page numbers listed correspond to the print edition of this book. You can use your device’s search function to locate particular terms in the text.
Adrianople
siege 285
Visigothic colony 280
agricult
ural civilizations, early 9–14
Ai Emperor
and Ujiuli chanyu 212–14
lifestyle 213
Akishev, Kemal 33
Alans (As; Aryans) 270
Alatan 60
Alexander the Great 166
Alexandria 201
Almaty, Kazakh, ‘Golden Man’ find 23–5
Altai Mountains 258
Xiongnu grave site 272–3
Altai Republic, Ukok Plateau finds 26–9
Ammianus Marcellinus
on Alans 270
on Huns 277–8
on Roman defeat 284, 286–7
on Visigoth refugees 280
Animal Style art 17, 18–19, 21
Ordos Bronzes 34, 35
Scythian Animal Style 28–9
archers, mounted 14–15, 37, 62, 99, 233, 261, 277, 287
bows 83–6
archery
arrowheads 14
whistling 86, 87
bows
asymmetrical 273
mounted archers 83–6
recurved, technology 13–14
crossbows 55–6
Chinese 83
repeating 55
triggers 172
English longbows 14, 84–5, 86
practice, Great Wall 184
technology 13–15
Arzhan 1 and 2 kurgans 18, 19–23
Attleborough 290
Attila of Hun (Xwn) people 39, 125
communication with Rome 104–5
no mention of Xiongnu 274–5
funds army with protection money 288
Honoria persuades to attack Orleans 288–9
Priscus visits 288, 289
defeated at Troyes, returns to Hungary 289
dies 289
in Christian legend 289–90
see also Huns
Avraga 123, 126
Aymyrlyg cemetery 20
Bai Qi 77
Baikal Lake 125, 171, 174
Balamber/ Balamur, Huns leader 269, 271
Balgasin Tal (City Steppe) 236
Ballod, Andrei, Noyon Uul (Royal Hills) grave mounds 7–9
bamboo strip records 180, 181, 197
Ban Gu, historian 112
and Ban Zhao
Han Shu (Book of Han) 100–1, 120, 129, 134, 257
on Zhaojun 218
Hou Han Shu (Book of Later Han) 120, 129, 134
on Dou Xian 259
revise Shi Ji 120
on Dou Xian and northern Xiongnu 256–60
on flying machine 252–4
on Han attack on Zhizhi 203
on Xiongnu split 197
Ban Zhao, first woman historian 120
Barbarians, employed in Roman army 281–2
Barbaricum 281
Barfield, Thomas 82
Batmonkh (guide) 235
Batsaikhan, B. 85
Bei chanyu 258
belts, Ordos Bronzes 33–4
Benjamin, Craig 43
Bi (Khailoshi-Jodi) takes followers to Ordos 255
Black Sea Scythians 17–23
languages 17
Black Water (Hei Shui) 159
Black Water River (Edsen Gol) 171, 180
fortress, ruins 162
settlers 167
blacksmiths 14
blood-sweating horses 152, 166, 167, 192
Blue Sky Mongolian deity (Tengri) 32, 42, 90
Genghis Khan and 90
statue 160
bolas weights, Ordos Bronzes 33
bows
asymmetrical 273
recurved, technology 13–14
bronze forging 12–13
Bronze Age slab-grave burials 40
‘broom stars’ (comets) 1–2
Brosseder, Ursula, on terrace tombs 245–6
Burgundians, Huns attack 288
cannonballs, Tong Wan Cheng city 263
Carpathians 272
Carrhae (Harran) 200
carriages
Gol Mod 2 232–3
Pazyryk find 25–6
Catalonia 271
cauldrons, Xiongnu and Hun 273–4
Central Asia, tribal migrations 189, 193–9
Chang’an (Xian) Han capital 93, 106
adventurers, and opening west 165–6
chanyus’ deals with 144–6
Huhanye in 196–7
rebellion 254–5
Xiongnu invade 132–3
Chao Cuo ‘Wisdom Bag’
on subverting Xiongnu 129–32, 136
on colonizing border regions 131–2
‘use barbarians to fight barbarians’ 131, 132–4
Chedihou chanyu, and Wu 168–71
Cheng Bushi, general 138
‘Chengli Gutu Chanyu’ 42–3
Chimeddorj, Professor Jakhadal, and Yanran Inscription 260–1
China
and Xiongnu people (Huns) 3–4
appeasement 95–110
communication 103–5
Ordos Bronzes for 35
Western Regions, as Xiongnu legacy 291
cultural unity 58
fall to Mongols 176–9
Gaozu’s rebellion 93
Middle Kingdom (zhong guo) 56–9
organisation 57–9
sends luxuries, wine & silk to Xiongnu 145–6
Warring States period 33, 46–59
see also specific dynasties; emperors
Chinese carriages
chariots, Gol Mod 2 232–3
Pazyryk find 25–6
Chinese script 103
revision 58
writing materials, early 103–4
Chinese-style graves 243–46
China West Film Studio 208–9, 211
Chinggis Khan University Ulaanbaatar 261
Chu, conquest 56
Chu-tsing Li 179
city-states, China 47–8
climate change
1500 BC, effect 12
Ordos 31
comets 1–2, 292
Confucian scholars 71, 72
on merchants 51
Confucius (Kong Fuzi) 47
Constantinople 276
Saracens, rout Visigoths 286
copper forging 12
Crassus 200
crossbows 55–6
Chinese 83
repeating 55
triggers 172
Cui Zidang 182
Cultural Revolution, campaign against old things 262–3
Cyrillonas, on Hum raids 288
Da Qin (Rome) 201
Da Xia (Xiongnu southern state) 261–4
Dai and Yanmen prefectures 41–2
Daodunzi cemetery, grave objects 99–100
Daoist historical ages 57
Datong 94
Davis-Kimball, Jeannine, on ‘Golden Man’ find 24
Dayuan (Great Yuan)
Greeks and Scythians 166
campaign 166–7
king supports Han 192
de Guignes, Joseph, Histoire générale des Huns, des Turcs et des Mogols 267–8
Desroches, Jean-Paul, and Gol Mod 1 239
Di and Rong tribes, Inner Mongolia 37–8
Di Cosmo, Nicola 40
Ding Ding (modern road builder) on straight road 66–9
Dingxiang, Han attack 155
Dniester 271, 272
Dong Hu, Mongolia 81
Dong tribe 43
demand tributes 88–9
Dong Xian 213, 214
Dongsheng to Kangbashi expressway 66
Dorjsuren (1923–97), and Gol Mod 1 238–9
Dou Xian, campaign against northern Xiongnu 256–60
Dövölzhin, on Terelzh River 124–5
Dubs, Homer Hasenpflug 200–1, 203
on Xiongnu Roman mercenaries 203, 208
Dudbridge, Glen, on Dubs theory 209–11
Dunhuang 166
bamboo strip records 180, 181
letters 39
Eastern Han dynasty 255
ceram
ics 230
Edsen (Khara Khot) 133
Edsen Gol 185
Edsen River 133
Egiin Gol graves excavation 230–1
‘Eight Talents of Wuxing’ 177–8
empress dowagers 53, 213, 216, 256
Empress Lü 100–3, 104, 106, 216
Shangguan 190–1
Zheng’s mother 50–4
Encyclopædia Britannica 1911, on Huns 268
English longbows 14, 84–5, 86
Erdenebaatar, Diimajav 231–7
Eregzen, Gelegdorj 227
Ermanaric, Ostrogoth chief 271
Etzel, Attila in German folklore 290
Fan Kuai, general 102
Feng Liao, Lady, regent of Wusan 193
Ferghana Valley 166
First Emperor, Zheng (Qin Shi Huang Di) 1–3, 57, 50–75
and standardised measurements 67
and straight road 60–9
and Xiongnu prophecy 61, 62
appearance, iconic version 58
death 69–75
rebellion against 93
tomb 237–8
flying machine 252–4
Four Beauties 219
Fritigern Visgothic king
leads people to Marcianople 279–80
asks for peace 282–4
frontier walls, China 47
Fu Xuan 221
Fusu (emperor’s first son)
and Meng Tian 71–5
suicide 75
Ganfu 148
Gansu province 43, 81, 158–9, 164
Modun attacks Yuezhi 98–9
Yuezhi, Xiongnu attack on 107–10
Gansu (Hexi) Corridor 98, 154–8, 159, 164, 203, 206
lost to Xiongnu 190
settlers 166–7
Gaoque Pass 157
Gaozu (Liu Bang) 93–100, 217
rebellion against First Emperor 93
Gaxun Lake 160
Genghis Khan 4, 14, 17, 33–4, 42, 82, 84, 86, 1101, 143, 292
and Mongolian script 105
bases 123–4
communication 104, 105
takes power 89–90
mother 33–4
Gibbon, Edward
on Huns as Xiongnu 267–8
on Honoria and Attila 288–9
glass bowl, Roman, Gol Mod 234–5
glue 13
Gobi Desert 163, 171, 225, 258
Li Ling defeated 115
Gol Mod cemeteries, finds 232–46
terrace tombs, scale 235–8
‘Golden Man’, Almaty 23–5
Gongshu Cuo 48–9
Gorno Altaisk 29
Goths, driven across Danube into Thrace 272
grasslands, pastoral nomads 10–15
Gratian, Emperor of the West, holds back 281–3
