by MAC-3
To emphasize your genuine interest in the details the interviewee has provided and to promote a positive view of your thoroughness, review all details during questioning. This will allow coverage of more specific areas of interest as the need arises.
Make it appear that some details are not as clear as they could be, or claim to have missed some meaningful information.
TYPES OF QUESTIONS
Two main types of questions are generally used in interviews: closed questions and open questions. The objective of the inquiry determines the use of closed or open questions. Fewer tactical restrictions apply to using open questions. By tactical restrictions, I mean strategic limitations that might hamper your progress in calling for the truth. Open questions allow for various angles or degrees of considered approach. They can be calculated to emphasize points of the inquiry using various levels of review and encouragement.
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Closed Questions
Closed, or closed-ended, questions are specific, offering a limited number of possible responses. Yes or no questions and multiple-choice questions are types of closed questions. Use closed questions at the beginning of an interview to encourage affirmative responses and to put interviewees more at ease.
The yes-no or either-or option of some closed questions limits the scope of responses and options. This can be useful when you want to maintain maximum control over the interview and thereby save some time. They are also handy when dealing with reluctant interviewees who will not give detailed responses. “Insofar as gaining information is concerned, narrow [closed] questions have the advantage of eliciting details.” In contrast, “open-ended questions rely almost exclusively on the [interviewee’s] unaided ability to recall” (Binder and Price 1977, p. 44). However, the unrestricted use of closed questions will hamper your efforts. “Narrow questions can inhibit the development of rapport. . . . The misuse of narrow questions involves detailed probing before the [interviewee] is ready. People will be willing to provide details, particularly about sensitive subjects, only if they feel comfortable in doing so.
Therefore, probing too soon, without first having developed a maximum of rapport, may cause the [interviewee] to feel improperly invaded” (Binder and Price 1977, pp. 44–45).
Open Questions
Open, or open-ended, questions start with who, where, what, when, how, or why. They cannot be answered yes or no, and they require the suspect to think clearly. Although they create the most distress, they also reveal the greatest amount of information. Open questions help interviews flow. Most open questions ask what, why, or how.
To learn the cause, reason, or purpose, ask the question why.
Why questions search out the facts of a situation and probe areas not commonly touched by more complicated questions. There are
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times, however, when the why question creates a threatening situation in which interviewees become defensive. Faced with the question “why,” they may feel rejected, misunderstood, or imposed upon. They may withdraw, prevaricate, or hit back with silence that may confuse or frustrate you. Questions beginning with why may provoke undue stress because they generate too much challenge. Interviewees generally cannot answer the question “why?” regarding subconscious thinking or behavior.
Answering reveals too much of the self, and self-disclosure makes people uncomfortable.
Open questions can help you accomplish several goals:
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Discover the interviewee’s priorities, attitudes, needs, values, aims, and aspirations
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Determine the interviewee’s frame of reference and viewpoints
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Establish empathic understanding and rapport
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Engage in active listening, stroking, positive regard, and recognition
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Allow and encourage interviewees to express their feelings and reveal facts without feeling threatened
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Promote catharsis, or expression of the interviewee’s emotions
Several different types of open questions can be used effectively during an interview. They are discussed below.
Reflective Questions
Reflective questions mirror the subject’ comments. They are used to handle objections. You might begin, “Let me see if I’ve got this straight . . .” or “So, what you’re saying is . . .” Once you’ve responded to the interviewee’s concerns, repeat the question that triggered the objection. By removing the obstacle to cooperation, you help the interviewee feel more comfortable responding to your subsequent questions.
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Directive Questions
Directive questions are used to direct the interviewee’s attention to areas of agreement with the investigator. Interviewees want to know the benefits to themselves of cooperation. A directive question answers this concern: “You do want to get to the bottom of this, don’t you?”
Pointed Questions
Pointed, or direct, questions are specific in nature, pointing directly at the goal. They are designed to rouse the interviewee to action.
Most of the questions asked in forensic interviews are pointed questions. By asking exactly what is desired, these questions show interviewees that you believe they are ready, willing, and able to respond. This method, which is based on the self-fulfilling prophecy, works most of the time.
Pointed questions might stimulate the physical expression of the interviewee’s stress, but they need not be offensive or accusatory. On the contrary, they should be thoughtfully developed and subtly applied to avoid invoking stress and making the subject defensive. You can gently stimulate the interviewee’s thinking with pointed, creative questions. For example, if you believe that the interviewee accidentally set a fire, you might ask, “On the day of the fire, how often did you smoke in the storeroom?”
Indirect Questions
Pointed questions are not always appropriate. Indirect questions provoke less stress, less fear, and hence less defensiveness on the part of the interviewee. They help subjects save face and rationalize their behavior by giving them “a universal blessing.” For example, you might say, “I’ve talked to many of the other employees, and they believe that . . . What do you think?” Indirect questions of this nature can help interviewees express their hidden self, their thoughts and feelings, and so on. Indirect questions
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are often used at the beginning of an interview and as a change of pace during the course of the discussion. They can also be used as diversion questions (see below).
Self-Appraisal Questions
Self-appraisal questions ask the interviewee to evaluate or judge him- or herself. They help the investigator develop a hypothesis about the who, how, and why of a crime or another incident.
Through self-appraisal questions, the interviewer gains a deeper understanding of the interviewee’s needs and probes his or her opinion, revealing possible evasiveness and distress. It is almost impossible for a deceptive or evasive interviewee to be consistent in answering self-appraisal questions. To respond deceptively, the interviewee must first think of an answer, decide that the answer would not sound good, and then make up a new story and tell it convincingly.
Diversion Questions
Diversion questions focus on something or someone near and dear to the interviewee. They have two purposes: (1) They lessen tension by distracting the interviewee from a tension-producing issue, and (2) they restore rapport between the subject and the investigator with a direct or indirect compliment. Diversion questions are useful when dealing with highly emotional interviewees. For example, the investigator might say in a matter-of-fact tone, “Now, let’s put that aside for a minute. I want to cover another point with you about your view of how the company can improve the security. As I mentioned, part of why I’m interviewing severa
l people is to accomplish two things. First, I would like to get that missing money back and second, I want to prevent this from happening again. Let me ask you, how can such a loss be prevented in the future?” The rambling nature of the question provides time for the interviewee to calm down if the interviewer had pushed some emotional buttons in previous questions.
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Leading Questions
Leading questions include some assumption on the part of the investigator. For example, the statement “From what I hear you say, you must have had a rough time in that job last summer” contains an assumption and invites the interviewee to elaborate or explain. Leading questions containing implicit messages can be used to maintain moderate emotional tension in the interview, but they need not be abrasive if thoughtfully constructed.
Leading questions can guide the interviewee toward greater cooperation with your investigation. They reflect your assumption that the interviewee can provide useful information. Leading questions can convey the interviewer’s acceptance of the individual, thereby enhancing rapport.
Leading questions are usually thought to produce invalid, unreliable answers. This is true when they are carelessly used.
Novice investigators sometimes have trouble using leading questions because their tone of voice and related nonverbal signals are not well controlled. Consequently, interviewees may feel condemned when faced with carelessly presented leading questions.
Ulterior motives are typically built into leading questions. Use leading questions with the ulterior motive of stimulating conversation and encouraging the interviewee to reveal the truth.
TECHNIQUES FOR EFFECTIVE QUESTIONING
The following guidelines will help you formulate effective interview questions.
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Avoid the third degree.
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Use closed questions when appropriate.
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Use open questions when appropriate.
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Keep your questions simple.
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Avoid ambiguously worded questions.
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Use leading questions properly.
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Ask self-appraisal questions.
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Have the gall to ask tough questions.
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Encourage cooperation.
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Mentally assume an affirmative answer.
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Pursue unanswered questions.
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Identify and challenge deception.
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Handle trial balloons calmly.
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Assume more information is available.
Having the Gall to Ask
Investigators “usually have problems asking tough or embarrassing questions and they may even avoid asking these questions to save themselves from embarrassment. There is no doubt it takes a certain amount of gall to ask someone if he or she stole the money, killed the husband, or got drunk and ran over a neighbor’s child” (Downs et al. 1980, p. 288). Conducting an investigative interview requires that you be brave enough to ask questions that would be rude and intrusive in other situations. To justify asking certain questions, participants need to agree that those questions are necessary.
Encouraging Cooperation
Encourage interviewees to provide information even when they have preconceived ideas about their role in the investigation (Kahn and Cannell 1957). If an interviewee has a role in an investigation, it is one of assisting the investigator by providing information that they alone may have. The investigator gleans information picked up by the interviewee who may have seen or heard something of value to the inquiry. By intentionally altering your verbal and nonverbal communication in a positive manner, you stimulate interviewees to respond cooperatively and truthfully (Nirenberg 1963). Encourage them to feel that cooperation enhances their sense of usefulness; in other words, associate cooperation with need fulfillment (Nirenberg 1963). Help the interviewee justify compliance.
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When interviewees try to argue that they should not comply, they are indicating that they are at least considering compliance, or they wouldn’t argue the point. Even interviewees who show up for a scheduled interview and sit quietly without responding to questions signal that they are considering compliance. Each situation is unique, requiring evaluation (Nirenberg 1963). Assume that reluctant interviewees have some degree of resentment, and ask questions designed to uncover that hidden resentment. An interviewer’s concerned attempts to convey compassion to a victim may be enough to encourage someone to share needed information. That someone may be the interviewee’s friend or relative who learns of the attempt at compassion.
Refusal tends to be the most resistant response from uncooperative interviewees; most will not resort to violence (Dexter 1970, p. 32). Faced with refusal, display the attitude that the interviewee will decide to cooperate in the future (Wicks and Josephs 1972). When interviewees sense that they can leave if they choose, they often feel trust and faith in you (Bennis et al. 1973, p. 252).
Their freedom to leave tends to release any fear that might hinder compliance.
Although most interviewees feel a personal obligation to answer truthfully, that obligation is lessened when the investigator is obviously unskilled in formulating questions. If the interviewee’s expectations conflict with the investigator’s questioning style, the interviewee may feel frustrated or annoyed. As a consequence, rapport may suffer (Binder and Price 1977, p. 65).
Interviewee reluctance or hostility may indicate avoidance of the topic under investigation, fear of retaliation, or maybe personal involvement in the delinquency. Your task is to guide the subject toward cooperation. Be a successful persuader, convincing interviewees to cooperate with your investigation (Bennis et al. 1973, p. 247). Gain information by strengthening the interviewee’s sense of obligation (Bennis et al. 1973, p. 70). If necessary, help the interviewee create a temporary new identity that will allow him or her to move from limited compliance to more complete cooperation.
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Such tactics are not negative if your intentions are basically helpful and honorable.
You can encourage cooperation by beginning the interview with simple closed questions that invite a positive response before asking more complex, specific, open questions. By convey-ing the impression that you need and expect additional facts, you can subtly encourage the interviewee to reveal more information.
If you can do so without creating unnecessary tension, imply that you have already obtained considerable information against which you will check the interviewee’s responses.
Mentally Assuming an Affirmative Answer
Uncooperative interviewees are willing to terminate an interview as soon as comfortably possible, particularly if they sense that you doubt your own abilities to obtain information. All they need is some encouragement in the form of negatively phrased questions, such as, “You wouldn’t happen to know anything about the fire, would you?” Investigators typically shake their head from side to side when asking questions like this.
To avoid receiving negative responses that lead you to a dead end, mentally assume an affirmative answer to a closed question, and ask the next logical question instead. For example, don’t ask, “Have you seen or talked with Sam Smith recently?”
The interviewee could define recently as “within the last several hours” and could answer no, closing off further discussion.
Instead, assume that the interviewee has seen Smith recently, and ask, “When was the last time you saw or talked with Sam Smith?”
This second question, an open question, cannot be answered yes or no. The interviewee must give a complete response if he or she answers at all. The response you receive will determine the direction of subsequent quest
ions. For example, if the interviewee responds, “I spoke with Sam two days ago,” you might ask, “What was Sam wearing when you last saw him? What kind of car was he driving? Who was he hanging around with?” These questions will
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help you determine Smith’s appearance, his means of transporta-tion, and his current associates.
Pursuing Unanswered Questions
There are many reasons why an interviewee might fail to answer a question or might provide an incomplete or nonsensical response. Perhaps the interviewee is preoccupied or distracted and did not hear the question correctly, or perhaps he or she is too overwhelmed by emotion to answer. If your question was poorly worded, the interviewee might not have understood what you were asking. Be patient. Give the interviewee time to think without challenging him or her. Then ask the question again, varying the wording if appropriate. Never ignore an unanswered question and go on to another topic. To go on and leave questions unanswered will only cause you eventual frustration.
Of course, the interviewee might ignore a question because he or she has something to hide. Always maintain a certain amount of unexpressed skepticism. When repeating a question, be alert for possible signals of deception. Be aware of patterns indicating that the truth is emerging. By not answering, an innocent interviewee might hope to avoid discussion of a difficult topic. You can reduce tension by repeating or rewording your question. When the interview touches on sensitive or threatening topics, you may need to restate a question to find a more acceptable form. Some words trigger mental images that may be emotionally painful to the interviewee, causing him or her to block out certain thoughts. Whether you repeat or reword a question depends on the circumstances and how you evaluate your progress in the interview.
