18. Sugden, Nelson: A Dream of Glory, 143–5; Nelson, Sketch of My Life, 6–7.
19. Dispatches and Letters of Vice Admiral Lord Viscount Nelson, 31–2.
20. The Journal of Don Francisco Saavedra de Sangronis, ed. Francisco Morales Padrón (Gainesville, 1989), xxvii.
21. Ibid., 3–7.
22. Roy Adkins and Lesley Adkins, Gibraltar: The Greatest Siege in British History (New York, 2018).
23. Chavez, Spain and the Independence of the United States, 170–7; David Narrett, Adventurism and Empire: The Struggle for Mastery of the Louisiana–Florida Borderland (Chapel Hill, 2015), 91–109; Kathleen DuVal, Independence Lost: Lives on the Edge of the American Revolution (New York, 2015), 135–87; Larrie Ferreiro, Brothers at Arms: The American Revolution and the Men of France and Spain who Saved It (New York, 2016), 161–3.
24. Claudio Saunt, West of Revolution (New York, 2014), 34–91; Carlos Herrera, Juan Bautista de Anza: The King’s Governor in New Mexico (Norman, 2015), 60–73.
25. Pekka Hämäläinen, The Comanche Empire (New Haven, 2008), 1–3, 68–75.
26. Ibid., 76–7.
27. Ibid., 75–80, 90–9.
28. Moseley, On Tropical Diseases, 76–8, 88; Hartford Courant, March 30, 1784, 3.
29. Moseley, On Tropical Diseases, 77.
30. Sugden, Nelson: A Dream of Glory, 136–9.
31. Dancer, A Brief History.
32. Ibid., 11.
33. Ibid., 12–13; Anon., Memoirs of Colonel E.M. Despard (London, 1803), 3–5: Linebaugh and Rediker, The Many-headed Hydra, 248–87.
34. Dancer, A Brief History, 14–16; Sugden, Nelson: A Dream of Glory, 164–5.
35. Stephen Kemble, The Kemble Papers (New York, 1884), vol. 2, 4.
36. Dancer, A Brief History, 18–19.
37. Dispatches and Letters of Vice Admiral Lord Viscount Nelson, 35; Kemble Papers vol. 2, 12–17.
5 REVOLT AND REVOLUTION IN THE SPANISH EMPIRE
1. The Tupac Amaru and Catarista Rebellions, ed. Ward Stavig and Ellen Schmidt (Cambridge, 2008), 109–10.
2. Ibid., 3, 9, 11.
3. Ibid.; Charles Walker, The Tupac Amaru Rebellion (Cambridge, 2016), 20–2.
4. Allan Kuethe and Kenneth Andrien, The Spanish Atlantic World in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge, 2014), 290–5.
5. Ibid., 231–71; Mark Burkholder, “Spain’s America: From Kingdoms to Colonies,” Colonial Latin America Review 25(2) (2016): 125–53.
6. Walker, The Tupac Amaru Rebellion, 5.
7. The Tupac Amaru and Catarista Rebellions, 21–2.
8. Ibid., 43–4; Walker, The Tupac Amaru Rebellion, 5.
9. Walker, The Tupac Amaru Rebellion, 21–2.
10. Ibid., 5–6.
11. Journal of Don Francisco Saavedra, xxi–xxii; The Tupac Amaru and Catarista Rebellions, 41–2; J.H. Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America (New Haven, 2007), 251, 357–8.
12. The Tupac Amaru and Catarista Rebellions, 61–3.
13. Ibid., 67–71; Bastidas as quoted in Walker, The Tupac Amaru Rebellion, 56.
14. The Tupac Amaru and Catarista Rebellions, 63, 87; Walker, The Tupac Amaru Rebellion, 3–4.
15. Walker, The Tupac Amaru Rebellion, 3–4.
16. The Tupac Amaru and Catarista Rebellions, 77–9.
17. Ibid., 76–7, 110–13; Walker, The Tupac Amaru Rebellion, 43, 55–6, 135.
18. The Tupac Amaru and Catarista Rebellions, 110.
19. The Tupac Amaru and Catarista Rebellions, 74; Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, 359–60.
20. Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, 359–60.
21. The Tupac Amaru and Catarista Rebellions, 119–21.
22. Ibid., 93, 122–7.
23. Ibid., 139–40.
24. Sergio Serulnikov, Revolution in the Andes: The Age of Tupac Amaru (Durham, NC, 2013), 107–33; Nicholas Robins, Genocide and Millennialism in Upper Peru: The Great Rebellion of 1780–1782 (Westport, CT, 2002).
25. Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, 361–2; John Phelan, The People and the King: The Comunero Revolution in Colombia, 1781 (Madison, WI, 1978).
26. Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, 362.
27. Hartford Courant, March 30, 1784, 3; Kemble Papers, vol. 2, 13–15.
28. Kemble Papers, vol. 2, 7.
29. Ibid., 36.
30. Ibid., 31–57; Mosely, On Tropical Diseases, 88–90; Sugden, Nelson: Dream of Glory, 173.
31. Sugden, Nelson: Dream of Glory, 173; Nelson, Sketch of My Life, 7–8, note 5.
32. Andrew Jackson O’Shaughnessy, An Empire Divided: The American Revolution and the British Caribbean (Philadelphia, 2000), 239–41.
33. Ibid.; Knight, The Pursuit of Victory, 565–9.
34. Conde de Aranda, On the Independence of the Colonies (1783) in Jon Cowans, ed., Early Modern Spain: A Documentary History (Philadelphia, 2003), 234–7.
35. As quoted in Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, 367.
36. Kuethe and Andrien, The Spanish Atlantic World, 271–335.
37. Ibid.
38. Aranda, On the Independence of the Colonies.
39. Ibid., 368.
40. The Tupac Amaru and Catarista Rebellions, 166–7.
6 EUROPEAN WEAKNESS AND THE RUSSIAN CONQUEST OF THE CRIMEA
1. Neil Kent, Crimea: A History (London, 2017), 22–30.
2. Ibid.; Serii Plokhy, Lost Kingdom: The Quest for Empire and the Making of the Russian Nation (New York, 2017), 3–5.
3. As quoted in Jonathan Miles, St. Petersburg: Three Centuries of Murderous Desire (London, 2017), 127.
4. H. Arnold Barton, Scandinavia in the Revolutionary Era (Minneapolis, 1986), 107–8, 121.
5. Ibid., 114–15.
6. Ibid., 114–17.
7. W.P. Cresson, Francis Dana: A Puritan Diplomat at the Court of Catherine the Great (New York, 1930), 105–6; Isabel de Madariaga, Britain, Russia, and the Armed Neutrality of 1780 (New Haven, 1962). The authenticity of Sayre’s account is undermined by the fact that his claims were made years later in an attempt to receive financial compensation from the U.S. government for services to diplomacy. Whatever his actual role, he was certainly present in Copenhagen in 1778, almost certainly in the service of Vergennes as his role was not recognized or encouraged by American diplomats in Europe.
8. Cresson, Francis Dana, 14–20.
9. Ibid., 24–5.
10. Ibid., 39–41.
11. Ibid., 53–5.
12. Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States (RDCUS) (Washington, DC, 1888, online), vol. 4, December 19, 1780, 201–3.
13. Cresson, Francis Dana, 159–63.
14. RDCUS, vol. 4, Francis Dana to the President of Congress, July 28, 1781, 610–11.
15. Ibid., vol. 2, Arthur Lee to the Committee on Foreign Affairs, June 11, 1777, 335; Bruce Burgoyne, ed., Enemy Views: The American Revolutionary War as Recorded by the Hessian Participants (Westminster, MD, 1996), 548.
16. Charles Ingrao, The Hessian Mercenary State: Ideas, Institutions and Reform under Frederick II, 1760–1785 (Cambridge, 1987), 122–37.
17. Ibid., 132.
18. Ibid., 57–95.
19. Rudiger Safranski, Goethe: Life as a Work of Art (New York, 2017), 212–15. Goethe’s Iphigenia in Tharsis, written in the same period as the negotiations with Prussia, is at some level a meditation on the intersection of sovereignty and purity or peace. Unlike its Greek namesake, Goethe’s Iphigenia focuses on the titular character’s attempts to secure her release from a barbarian king whom she serves as priestess, without having to sacrifice the man she comes to find is her brother. This attempt to secure freedom or autonomy without necessitating bloodshed mirrors Weimar’s position in 1778–9, when Weimar hoped to maintain its independence from Prussia while still remaining neutral in the coming war.
20. Ibid., 1, 139.
21. Ingrao, The Hessian Mercenary State, 142.
22. Ibid., 144, 151.
23. Burgoy
ne, ed., Enemy Views, 8.
24. Constitutional Gazette, April 20, 1776; Pennsylvania Evening Post, September 14, 1776, March 8, 1777; Freeman’s Journal, November 12, 1776, February 18, 1777, March 22, 1777.
25. Pennsylvania Evening Post, June 1, 1776; Freeman’s Journal, July 27, October 29, 1776, April 12, 1777.
26. Burgoyne, ed., Enemy Views, 527–8, 530–1, 587–8.
27. Ingrao, The Hessian Military State, 157–8.
28. Burgoyne, ed., Enemy Views, 549.
29. Ingrao, The Hessian Military State, 145–50.
30. RDCUS, vol. 4, Dana to the President of Congress, July 28, 1781, 610–11.
31. Isabel de Madariaga, Catherine the Great (New Haven, 2002), 1–24; Miles, St. Petersburg, 133–4.
32. Miles, St. Petersburg, 130–6, 139–40.
33. Ibid., 126–7, 130, 140.
34. Cresson, Francis Dana, 179; Madariaga, Britain, Russia, and the Armed Neutrality.
35. Cresson, Francis Dana, 108.
36. Miles, St. Petersburg, 171–3; Daniel Beer, The House of the Dead: Siberian Exile Under the Tsars (New York, 2016), 21–7.
37. A Series of Letters of the First Earl of Malmesbury (London, 1870), 351–483; Madariaga, Britain, Russia, and the Armed Neutrality, 3–4, 20, 202–9.
38. Madariaga, Britain, Russia, and the Armed Neutrality, 241.
39. RDCUS, vol. 5, Dana to Livingston, March 5, 1782, 223–4.
40. William Wraxall as quoted in Richard Bassett, For God and Kaiser: The Imperial Austria Army (London, 2015), 175; Virginia H. Aksan, Ottoman Wars 1700–1870: An Empire Besieged (New York, 2013), 137.
41. Bassett, For God and Kaiser, 176; Aksan, Ottoman Wars, 137–8.
42. Love and Conquest: Personal Correspondence of Catherine the Great and Prince Grigory Potemkin, ed. Douglas Smith (DeKalb, 2004), 256, 257.
43. Ibid., 259.
44. Ibid., 260, 262, 262, 263, 266.
45. Diaries and Correspondence of the Earl of Malmesbury (London, 1844), 1–29; Cresson, Francis Dana, 274–5.
46. RDCUS, vol. 4, March 30, 1782; October 14, 1782; January 15, 1783; February 10, 1783; May 30, 1783; July 8, 1783. Cresson, Francis Dana, 273–4.
47. Suraiya Faroqhi, Subjects of the Sultan (London, 2005), 225–8; Abbas Amanat, Iran: A Modern History (New Haven, 2017), 153–62.
48. Love and Conquest, 266, 267, 268, 274.
49. Ibid., 286.
50. Ibid., 280.
51. Kent, Crimea, 54–5.
52. Love and Conquest, 280; Plokhy, Lost Kingdom, 48–50.
53. Kent, Crimea, 52–3.
54. Ibid., 53–5.
55. Love and Conquest, 282.
56. Cresson, Francis Dana, 265.
57. Ibid., 281, 288, 298–318.
58. Plokhy, Lost Kingdom, 11–15; Kent, Crimea, 55; Paul Robert Magocsi, The Blessed Land: Crimea and the Crimean Tatars (Toronto, 2014), 55–6.
59. Doyle, French Revolution, 67–8; McPhee, Liberty or Death; Schama, Citizens.
60. Doyle, French Revolution, 32; Schama, Citizens, 55–60.
61. Peter Hill, French Perceptions of the Early American Republic, 1783–1793 (Philadelphia, 1988), 45.
62. Ibid., 22, 173–4.
63. Ibid., 45–7, 172–4.
64. Barton, Scandinavia, 123.
65. Ibid., 135–8.
66. Ibid., 153.
67. Franklin D. Scott, Sweden: The Nation’s History (Carbondale, 1988), 270–5.
68. Barton, Scandinavia, 157.
69. Ali Yaycioglu, Partners of the Empire: The Crisis of the Ottoman Order in the Age of Revolutions (Stanford, 2016), 37–8.
70. Madariaga, Britain, Russia, and the Armed Neutrality, 387–412, 447–58.
71. Ibid.
7 CONFLICT AND CAPTIVITY IN INDIA
1. William Hodges, Travels in India during the years 1780, 1781, 1782 and 1783 (London, 1783).
2. As quoted in John Keay, India: A History (London, 2010), 370.
3. Eliza Fay, Original Letters from India, ed. E.M. Forster (New York, 2010), 110.
4. Ibid., 31–47. Despite her “great pleasure” as an “Englishwoman” in seeing the council chamber where the peace was signed, Fay was mistaken about which treaty was signed at Fontainebleau. The Treaty of Fontainebleau, which was signed a year before the Treaty of Paris officially ended hostilities in 1763, was a secret arrangement between France and Spain to cede Louisiana to the Spanish. Fay’s patriotic sentiment, however, seems entirely genuine.
5. Ibid., 51–7.
6. Philip Mazzei, Philip Mazzei, Virginia’s Agent in Europe: The Story of his Mission as Related in His own Dispatches and other Documents, ed. Howard Arraro (New York, 1935), 4–15.
7. Thomas Madden, Venice: A New History (New York, 2012), 354–63.
8. Fay, Original Letters from India, 76–7.
9. Ibid., 83–7.
10. Ibid., 101.
11. Ibid., 105–7.
12. Ibid., 109–11.
13. Ibid., 111–12.
14. The tension on board the Nathalia had become so intense that Captain Chenu and Hare had twice agreed to duel, only for the matter to be settled peacefully by the timely intervention of other passengers. Other duels between Englishmen were also reported at the Danish factory in Calicut.
15. Fay, Original Letters from India, 117.
16. Ibid., 118.
17. Ibid., 115.
18. Ibid., 116.
19. Ibid., 120, 122, 142, 144.
20. William Dalrymple, White Mughals: Love and Betrayal in Eighteenth-century India (London, 2002), 14–16, 24–25; Shelford Bidwell, Swords for Hire: European Mercenaries in Eighteenth Century India (London, 1971).
21. Dalrymple, White Mughals, 32–3.
22. George Thomas, Military Memoirs of George Thomas (London, 1805).
23. 18 George III, c. 53; 19 George III, c. 10.
24. OBSP, t17820109-23, 34, 51, 1.
25. Ibid., t1775101804.
26. Denver Brunsman, The Evil Necessity: British Naval Impressment in the Eighteenth Century Atlantic World (Charlottesville, 2013), 2–8; 18 George III, c. 53.
27. OBSP, t17890422-13, t17950916-50. See also: t17870523-98; t17720219-58; t17720219-1; t17790113-6; t177910216-2.
28. Fay, Original Letters from India, 120.
29. Ibid., 149.
30. Ibid., 144.
31. Ibid., 152.
32. The decision to target Vandavasi was full of meaning for the French, who, under the ill-fated Thomas Lally, had lost the city to Sir Eyre Coote and the British in 1760. Lally would later be executed in Paris as a scapegoat for the failures of the French in India during the Seven Years’ War.
33. As quoted in, William Dalrymple, “An Essay in Imperial Villain-Making,” Guardian, May 23, 2005.
34. James Scurry, The Captivity, Suffering and Escape of James Scurry (London, 1824), 108.
35. Philip Freneau, “Barney’s Invitation,” in The Poems of Philip Freneau: Poet of the American Revolution (State College, PA, 1902); Jonathan Eacott, Selling Empire: India in the Making of Britain and America, 1600–1800 (Chapel Hill, 2016), 317.
36. Linda Colley, Captives: Britain, Empire and the World, 1600–1850 (London, 2002), 276–282; Irfan Habib, “Introduction: An Essay on Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan,” in Irfan Habib, ed., Confronting Colonialism: Resistance and Modernisation under Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan (London, 2002), xxii.
37. Colley, Captives, 288.
38. Habib, “Introduction: An Essay on Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan,” xx–xxxi.
39. Scurry, Captivity, 103–5.
40. The Letters of Tipoo Sultan to Various Public Functionaries, ed. William Fitzpatrick (London, 1811), 59.
41. Kranti K. Farias, The Christian Impact in South Kanara (Mumbai, 1999), 74.
42. Letters of Tipoo Sultan, 228.
43. Ibid., 242, 256, 381, 390, 433, 438.
44. Habib, Confronting Colonialism, 135.
45. Ibid.
46. Letters of Tipoo
Sultan, 57–9, 229.
47. Habib, “Introduction: An Essay on Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan,” xxv.
48. Dalrymple, White Mughal, 84–8. The major exception to the general religious tolerance, if not harmony, was the reign of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707), whose persecution of non-Muslims is notorious to this day. Even so, Aurangzeb’s religious violence was largely directed toward the physical symbols of religion, Hindu temples for instance, rather than the believers themselves.
49. Hodges, Travels in India, 5–7.
50. As quoted in Mohibbul Hasan, “The French in the Second Anglo-Mysore War,” in Habib, ed., Confronting Colonialism, 43.
51. Letters of Tipoo Sultan, 13, 91.
52. Colley, Captives, 262, 271.
53. Ibid., 43–5.
54. Kaushik Roy, War, Culture and Society in Early Modern South Asia, 1740–1849 (Abingdon, 2011), 70–87; Habib, “Introduction: An Essay on Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan.”
8 THE BIRTH OF BRITISH INDIA
1. Fay, Letters from India, 171–2.
2. Michael Fisher, ed., The Travels of Dean Mahomet (Berkeley, 1997), 15–17, 35–7.
3. Ibid., 13.
4. Ibid., 36.
5. Ibid., 38–42.
6. H.H. Dodwell, The Cambridge History of the British Empire (Cambridge, 1929), 295–8.
7. Warren Hastings, A Narrative of the Insurrection that Happened in the Zamindary of Benares (Calcutta, 1782), 27.
8. Fisher, ed., Travels of Dean Mahomet, 120.
9. Hodges, Travels in India, 49–50.
10. Ibid., 50–1; Fisher, ed., Travels of Dean Mahomet, 115–17.
11. Fisher, ed., Travels of Dean Mahomet, 117.
12. Nicholas Dirks, The Scandal of Empire: India and the Creation of Imperial Britain (Cambridge, 2008), 19–20, 100–19.
13. Ibid.
14. Fisher, ed., Travels of Dean Mahomet, 121–3.
15. Hodges, Travels in India, 49.
16. John Keay, The Honourable Company: A History of the English East India Company (London, 1993), 366.
17. Ibid., 362; P.J. Marshall, “Hastings, Warren (1732–1818),” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford, 2004; online edn, Oct. 2008).
18. Ibid.
19. Ibid.
20. Ibid.
21. Seema Alavi, ed., The Eighteenth Century in India (Oxford, 2008), 11–12, 20–1; Habib, Confronting Colonialism, xxi.
22. Marshall, “Hastings, Warren (1732–1818)”; Michael Franklin, Orientalist Jones, 212–15, 351. As we have seen previously, Hastings’ genuine attempts to understand and textualize Indian religion, law, and culture had the unintended effect of helping to harden the lines between Hindu and Muslim, undermining the very syncretism he so admired and so ardently wished to cultivate.
To Begin the World Over Again Page 63
