193. J. Ogden Armour, “The Supremacy of the American Hog,” The Breeder’s Gazette, Dec. 20, 1911, 1290, 1333, 1336, 1338, 1340, 1342.
194. “Sea-Fare,” Chamber’s Journal, September 20, 1882, 623–26.
195. Report of the Committee Appointed to Inquire into the Question of Navy Rations, Meal Hours, The Prices Paid for “Savings,” and the Management of Canteens (London: 1901), 16, Parliamentary Papers Online.
196. On depots, see Report of the Committee Appointed by the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty to Inquire into the System of Purchase and Contract in the Navy (London: 1887), 68–70, Parliamentary Papers Online; on salt junk, see Frederick Dolman, “How the Navy Is Fed,” The English Illustrated Magazine, Oct. 1900, 8–17.
197. Report from the Select Committee on Preserved Meats (Navy), 68, 398.
198. “British Agriculture and Foreign Competition,” Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine, Jan. 1850, 94–136.
199. Report from the Select Committee on Preserved Meats (Navy), 68, 398, on superior quality, 401.
200. Report from the Select Committee on Preserved Meats (Navy), 115, 127, 401.
201. Navy (Health). Return to an Order of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 29 April 1870;—for, A Copy of the Statistical Abstract of the Health of the Navy, for the Year 1869–70 (London: 1870), 22, Parliamentary Papers Online.
202. Report from the Select Committee on Public Departments (Purchases, &c.) (London: 1873), 449, Parliamentary Papers Online.
203. Report of the Committee Appointed by the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty to Inquire into the System of Purchase and Contract in the Navy, 48.
204. Report of the Committee Appointed to Inquire into the Question of Navy Rations, 13.
205. “Sea-Fare,” Chamber’s Journal, September 20, 1882, 623–26, 625.
206. Report from the Select Committee on Preserved Meats (Navy), 114.
207. Annual Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Statistics on the Commerce and Navigation of the United States for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1870 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1871), 184.
208. Treasury Department, Annual Report and Statements of the Chief of the Bureau of Statistics on the Commerce and Navigation of the United States for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1883 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1883), 194.
209. “Imports into South Africa,” The National Provisioner 19 (August 13, 1898): 14.
210. Treasury Department, Annual Report and Statements of the Chief of the Bureau of Statistics on the Foreign Commerce and Navigation, Immigration, and Tonnage of the United States for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1888 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1888), 298–99.
211. Nathaniel Edward Yorke-Davies, “The Feeding of the Soldier: The Lesson of the Great Boer War,” The Gentleman’s Magazine, Dec. 1902, 601–17.
212. “Live-Stock and Kindred Markets,” Breeder’s Gazette 2 (July 13, 1882): 93.
213. The Illinois Agriculturist 8 (March 1904): 114.
214. Frank M. Surface, American Pork Production in the World War (Chicago: A. W. Shaw Company, 1926), 5.
215. Robert James McFall, The World’s Meat (New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1927), 135, 514.
216. Avner Offer, The First World War: An Agrarian Interpretation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 1, 51, 354, 376.
217. John W. Coogan, The End of Neutrality: The United States, Britain, and Maritime Rights, 1899–1915 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1981), 162–63, 199–201.
218. Offer, The First World War: An Agrarian Interpretation, 354, 366.
219. Clemen, The American Livestock and Meat Industry, 292–93.
220. Frank M. Surface, The Grain Trade During the World War (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1928), 17.
221. Offer, The First World War: An Agrarian Interpretation, 1, 354, 376.
222. W. H. Thomas, “A Missouri Farmer Argues,” Prairie Farmer, Dec. 6, 1890, 769, 777.
223. Minutes of the Proceedings of the Navy League Conference to Consider the Position of the Country If Involved in War (London: Spottiswoode and Co., 1898), 93.
224. Loudon M. Douglas, “Bacon-Curing,” Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England 9 (March 31, 1898), 68–103.
225. “War and the Importation of Provisions,” The National Provisioner 18 (May 7, 1898): 23.
226. Thomas G. Read, “Our Food Supplies in Time of War,” Mark Lane Express and Agricultural Journal 81 (Nov. 20, 1899): 593.
227. “War with Great Britain,” Illinois Farmer 1 (March 1856): 58–59.
228. Edward P. Crapol, America for Americans: Economic Nationalism and Anglophobia in the Late Nineteenth Century (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1973), 14–17. John Darwin discusses “semi-colonial” investments in the British Empire in Unfinished Empire: The Global Expansion of Britain (London: Penguin Books, 2012), 395.
229. Chicago’s rising ability to stand alongside centers of capital likewise resulted from regional ties to Britain; James Belich, Replenishing the Earth: The Settler Revolution and the Rise of the Anglo-World, 1783–1939 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 495.
230. “Britain, Peace and War,” The National Provisioner 22 (Feb. 24, 1900): 11. The United States shipped on average half of its total exports to the UK from 1837 to 1873, getting 40 percent of its imports from the UK in return; Jay Sexton, Debtor Diplomacy: Finance and American Foreign Relations in the Civil War Era, 1837–1873 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 3.
231. Gordon Robert Lyall, “From Imbroglio to Pig War: The San Juan Island Dispute, 1853–71, in History and Memory,” BC Studies, no. 186 (Summer 2015): 73–93; Stuart Anderson, Race and Rapprochement: Anglo-Saxonism and Anglo-American Relations, 1895–1904 (East Brunswick, NJ: Associated University Presses, 1981), 11.
Chapter 4: The Isolationist Capital of America: Hotbed of Alliance Politics
1. J. M. Peck, New Guide for Emigrants to the West, Containing Sketches of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Michigan, with the Territories of Wisconsin and Arkansas, and the Adjacent Parts (Boston: Gould, Kendall & Lincoln, 1836), 259.
2. H. J. D., “Chat from Abroad,” 28, Scrapbook of H. J. Dunlap, Furth, Baker-Busey-Dunlap Family Papers, Box 14, Illinois Historical Survey, UIUC.
3. J. O. Cunningham, History of Champaign County (1905; reprint, Champaign: Champaign County Historical Archives, 1984), 884.
4. “Geo. Busey Tells of Southern Trip,” Urbana Courier, March 12, 1912.
5. “Andrew Rutherford Is Dead,” Urbana Courier, May 4, 1915.
6. “Chinese Girl to Be Missionary,” Urbana Courier, May 4, 1915.
7. “Miss Kyle Will Not Leave U. of I.,” Urbana Courier, July 26, 1916.
8. On “isolation” as the result of ethnic groups’ disinclination to fight the Central powers, see Ray Allen Billington, “The Origins of Middle Western Isolationism,” Political Science Quarterly 60 (March 1945): 44–64. On isolationism as “an attitude of opposition to binding commitments,” see Leroy N. Rieselbach, The Roots of Isolationism: Congressional Voting and Presidential Leadership in Foreign Policy (New York: Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1966), 7. On isolationism as opposition to committing U.S. forces outside the hemisphere, see John Milton Cooper, Jr., The Vanity of Power: American Isolationism and the First World War, 1914–1917 (Westport: Greenwood Publishing Corporation, 1969), 2.
9. “Isolationism” owes a debt to references to diplomatic “isolation” in cases when European powers pursued their interests independently. See “The News This Morning,” New York Tribune, Feb. 28, 1896.
10. William A. Williams, “The Legend of Isolationism in the 1920’s,” in Essays in American Diplomacy, ed. Armin Rappaport (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1967), 215–28.
11. On so-called isolationists as nationalists and imperialists, see William G. Carleton, “Isolationism a
nd the Middle West,” The Mississippi Valley Historical Review 33 (Dec. 1946): 377–90, 386. On claims that if isolationism means “total abstention from international affairs” then it should “have no place in accounts of American history,” see Thomas N. Guinsburg, The Pursuit of Isolationism in the United States Senate from Versailles to Pearl Harbor (New York: Garland Publishing, 1982). On wanting to keep the United States out of war, not out of the world, see Brooke L. Blower, “From Isolationism to Neutrality: A New Framework for Understanding American Political Culture, 1919–1941,” Diplomatic History 38 (April 2014): 345–76.
12. On the rural roots of isolationism, see Robert P. Wilkins, “The Nonpartisan League and Upper Midwest Isolationism,” Agricultural History 39 (April 1965): 102–09. On associating the Midwest with noninterventionist policies, even though midwesterners were never the only or even the majority of voters who backed them, see Joseph A. Fry, “Place Matters: Domestic Regionalism and the Formation of American Foreign Policy,” Diplomatic History 36 (June 2012): 451–82. On isolationist capital, Rieselbach, The Roots of Isolationism, 110.
13. On idealized vision, see Cooper, The Vanity of Power, 140. On isolationists as agriculturalists who had suffered after World War I, see Guinsburg, The Pursuit of Isolationism, 266–67.
14. Wayne S. Cole, “Gerald P. Nye and Agrarian Bases for the Rise and Fall of American Isolationism,” in Three Faces of Midwestern Isolationism: Gerald P. Nye, Robert E. Wood, and John L. Lewis, ed. John N. Schacht (Iowa City: The Center for the Study of the Recent History of the United States, 1981), 1–10. Warren F. Kuehl debunks the idea of midwestern isolationism in “Midwestern Newspapers and Isolationist Sentiment,” Diplomatic History 3 (July 1979): 283–306.
15. Based on keyword searching “isolationism” and “isolationist” in the Prairie Farmer and Urbana Daily Courier through 1945, Illinois Digital Newspaper Collection.
16. “Dysentery in Calves and Other Young Animals,” Prairie Farmer, April 29, 1899; “Isolation in Arctics,” Urbana Daily Courier, May 29, 1917; “Ever Hear of the Island of Mahe?” Urbana Daily Courier, Dec. 20, 1918. Similarly, the New York Tribune ran stories alluding to the isolation of islands like Labrador and Guam, the Kentucky mountains, Nevada deserts, and sheep stations in New South Wales. See “Women of Labrador,” New York Tribune, May 21, 1904; “Army and Navy Notes,” New York Tribune, July 25, 1909; “An Eccentric Kentuckian Dead,” New York Tribune, Dec. 25, 1897; “New Mines in Nevada,” New York Tribune, Nov. 13, 1869; “Australian Housekeeping,” New York Tribune, Feb. 23, 1903.
17. “The Farmer’s Automobile,” Prairie Farmer, Oct. 9, 1915; “Practical Talk about Rural Telephones,” Prairie Farmer, Dec. 15, 1909; “A Granger Interviewed,” Prairie Farmer, Sept. 15, 1877; “How Rural Delivery Pays,” Prairie Farmer, April 6, 1905; “A Word to the Wise,” Prairie Farmer, Jan. 21, 1904; on newspapers and telegrams, “Co-operation of Farmers,” Prairie Farmer, June 14, 1873.
18. “Hermits Abnormal,” Urbana Daily Courier, Sept. 24, 1906.
19. Anne Effland, “International Programs of the USDA: Cross-Purposes or a Delicate Balance?,” Agricultural History 87 (Summer 2013): 349–58.
20. Eugene V. Davenport, “The Relation of Agricultural Organizations to Agricultural Development,” 1–2, speech of 1902; Folder: Agricultural Organizations, Box 5, Eugene V. Davenport Papers, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (hereafter UIUC) Archives.
21. “Champaign County,” Prairie Farmer, Jan. 20, 1877.
22. John Agnew, The United States in the World-Economy: A Regional Geography (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 53.
23. J. R. Dodge, “Report of the Statistician,” Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture, 1886 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1887), 359–458.
24. “Corn,” The Illinois Agriculturist 2 (1898), 81.
25. “Illinois Traction System Monument to Genius of Hon. William B. McKinley,” Urbana Courier, Dec. 13, 1909.
26. “M’Kinley for Senator,” Chicago Daily Tribune, Aug. 16, 1920.
27. “Made Right Selection,” Urbana Courier, Dec. 13, 1905.
28. William B. McKinley: Memorial Addresses Delivered in the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States in Memory of William B. McKinley (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1927), 6. On reciprocity tariff positions, see “What T.R. Asks Has Become Law,” Urbana Courier, Oct. 4, 1912.
29. On protection, see “Facts! To Think About,” Urbana Courier, Oct. 29, 1914. On trade, see “McKinley’s Prestige a Factor,” Urbana Courier, Oct. 24, 1912.
30. “Knox Praises W.B. M’Kinley,” Urbana Courier, Aug. 21, 1912.
31. On shipping rights, “End of Peace Conference,” Urbana Courier, July 26, 1906; “War Airships under Ban,” Urbana Courier, Sept. 21, 1912. Fredrik Sterzel, The Inter-Parliamentary Union (Stockholm: P. A. Norsted and Söner, 1968), 9, 26–27. The members in 1912: Australia, Belgium, Britain, Bulgaria, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Liberia, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Rumania, Russia, Serbia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, and the United States; Inter-Parliamentary Bureau, The Inter-Parliamentary Union: Its Work and Its Organisation (Geneva: Inter-Parliamentary Bureau, 1948), 18–19.
32. “The News Boiled Down,” Urbana Courier, Jan. 15, 1904.
33. William B. McKinley: Memorial Addresses, 8, 35.
34. “M’Kinley to Visit Rome,” Urbana Courier, Aug. 29, 1911.
35. “M’Kinley Says Reduce War Cost,” Urbana Courier, Oct. 24, 1912.
36. On Italian war, “M’Kinley Comes Home ‘Broke,’” Urbana Courier, Oct. 31, 1911; on “foremost,” “M’Kinley Says Reduce War Cost,” Urbana Courier, Oct. 24, 1912; “Eminent Divine Out for M’Kinley,” Urbana Courier, Sept. 24, 1912.
37. Jack R. Harlan, “Gene Centers and Gene Utilization in American Agriculture,” Environmental Review 1, no. 3 (1976): 26–42.
38. Philip J. Pauly, Fruits and Plains: The Horticultural Transformation of America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007).
39. John C. Van Tramp, Prairie and Rocky Mountain Adventures or Life in the West (Baltimore: H. Miller, 1859), 565–66. On biological innovation, see Alan L. Olmstead and Paul W. Rhode, Creating Abundance: Biological Innovation and American Agricultural Development (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 390.
40. “Origins of Various Trees, Plants, and Shrubs,” Urbana Union, Sept. 22, 1853.
41. J. S. Budd, “History of the Duchess Apple,” Prairie Farmer, March 29, 1890, 198.
42. “Red Astrachan,” Illinois Farmer 5 (Sept. 1860): 151.
43. “What Is Imphee,” Illinois Farmer 2 (Nov. 1857): 263.
44. “Aurora. Second Day of the Northern Illinois Horticultural Society,” vol. Dunlap 2, Box 3, Matthias L. Dunlap Papers, UIUC Archives.
45. Alfred W. Crosby, Jr., The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1972). On “neo-ecological imperialism,” see Gregory T. Cushman, Guano and the Opening of the Pacific World: A Global Ecological History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 19, 77.
46. “Hall Hardware Co.,” Urbana Courier, July 1, 1913.
47. Prairie Farmer’s Reliable Directory of Farmers and Breeders, Champaign County (Chicago: Prairie Farmer [1917]), 13, 260.
48. C. R. Overman, “On the Germination, Cultivation, Use and Value to the State of Illinois, of the ‘Maclura’ or Osage Orange Hedge,” Transactions of the Illinois State Agricultural Society 1 (1853–1854): 412–23. On hedges and civilization, see William D. Walters, Jr., The Heart of the Cornbelt: An Illustrated History of Corn Farming in McLean County (Bloomington: McLean County Historical Society, 1997), 15.
49. Samuel Edwards, “On the Cultivation of Timber on the Prairies for Shelter,” Transactions of the Illinois State Agricultural Society 1 (1853–1854): 478–79.
50
. “Fruit Trees for Ornamental Purposes,” Illinois Farmer 5 (Jan. 1860): 12.
51. National Forest Foundation, “Restoring a Lost Landscape at Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie,” https://www.nationalforests.org/who-we-are/our-impact/midewin, accessed Sept. 2015.
52. Pauly, Fruits and Plains, 104–05. On seeds, Sarah T. Phillips, “Antebellum Agricultural Reform, Republican Ideology, and Sectional Tension,” Agricultural History 74 (Autumn, 2000): 799–822.
53. Knowles A. Ryerson, “History and Significance of the Foreign Plant Introduction Work of the United States Department of Agriculture,” Agricultural History 7 (July 1933): 110–28. On imports, “President M’Kinley,” Farmer and Breeder for the Farm Home 12 (Dec. 1899): 1. Courtney Fullilove, The Profit of the Earth: The Global Seeds of American Agriculture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017), 28–66.
54. Charles M. Gardner, The Grange—Friend of the Farmer (Washington, DC: National Grange, 1949), 163. This practice ended in 1923, 165.
55. Harlan, “Gene Centers and Gene Utilization in American Agriculture,” 28.
56. “Substitutes and Adulterations of Coffee,” Illinois Farmer 7 (April 1862): 115–16.
57. Charles T. Leavitt, “Attempts to Improve Cattle Breeds in the United States, 1790–1860,” Agricultural History 7 (April 1933): 51–67.
58. “Japan Oranges,” Prairie Farmer, Jan. 11, 1890, 22. On the earlier circulation of agricultural information, see Joyce E. Chaplin, An Anxious Pursuit: Agricultural Innovation and Modernity in the Lower South, 1730–1815 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993), 136, 142.
59. “The Illinois Farmer,” Illinois Farmer 5 (Aug. 1860): 130.
60. “Illinois Department of Agriculture,” Prairie Farmer, Jan. 13, 1877.
61. Rural, “Our Country Correspondence,” The Farm and Garden, July 10, 1856, vol. Dunlap 3, Box 3, Matthias L. Dunlap Papers, UIUC Archives.
62. “The Farm and Garden. An Unexpected Present,” vol. Dunlap 3, Box 3, Matthias L. Dunlap Papers, UIUC Archives.
63. [M. L. Dunlap], “The Farm and Garden,” Illinois Farmer, May 1858, 74–75.
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