dose response: cancer and, 199, 314, 318–19; causation and, 319; cell phones and, 314, 318–19; genetics and, 216–17; radon and, 283
double-blind studies, 323, 444n17
Douglas, James S., 128–29
Drinker, Cecil, 421n51
Drinker, Philip, 421n51
Dunn, Elizabeth, 87–88
Dunning, Gordon, 181
dynamite (TNT), 159, 170, 375, 431n21
E=mc2 equation, 33, 70–71, 143, 170
earthquakes: Alaska, 348; assessment of, 257–59; Chile, 348, 356–57; epicenter of, 349, 352, 356; fault lines and, 351; Fukushima, Japan, 346–57, 362, 368–69, 447nn1, 5, and 15; historical, 356–57; magnitude of, 347–48; mechanism of, 351; Meiji Sanriku, 356; moment magnitude scale and, 348, 447n2; predicting from catfish behavior, 348; P waves and, 349–50; Richter scale and, 348; seismic regions and, 349; Sumatra, 348; S waves and, 349–50; tectonic plates and, 351; tremors and, 349, 351; tsunamis and, 351–60, 362, 368, 372–73
ecological studies, 434n18
Edison, Thomas, xi; Crookes tubes and, 30–32; electricity and, 10–12, 15, 30, 95, 238; fear mongering by, 11–12; filaments and, 10; General Electric and, 350, 412n17; light bulb and, 10, 117; prisoner execution and, 14; public electrocutions and, 12–14, 412n11; radium and, 94–95; safety and, 15, 33, 94–95; vilification of, 14; x-rays and, 30–32
effective dose: Bragg and, 294; Crookes tubes and, 294; CT scans and, 200–201, 303–7, 370, 434n26; definition of, 295; diagnostic radiography and, 294–96, 298–99, 303, 306, 442n6; exposure time and, 294–96, 298–99, 303, 306, 334–40, 365, 367, 370–71, 442n6, 445nn13 and 15; food and, 334–40; lifetime risk of cancer and, 200, 285, 295–96, 339, 370, 443n6; nuclear power plants and, 365, 367, 370–71
“Effects of Nuclear Weapons, The” (report), 392–93
Einstein, Albert, 33, 65, 70–71, 105, 170, 261, 432n52, 438n15
Ejit, 179
electric chair, 14, 30, 412n17
electricity, x–xi; alternating current (AC), 12–15, 30, 32, 95, 166, 259, 350; atomic particles and, 63–64, 68; atom splitting and, 63–64; Bragg and, 245; conductivity and, 17, 52; Crookes tubes and, 22 (see also Crookes tubes); death from, 11–15, 19, 68–69, 412n11; direct current (DC), 12–13, 15, 32, 259, 350; Edison and, 10–12, 15, 30, 95, 238; fear of, 9–12; filaments and, 10, 22–23, 117; Geissler and, 22; health issues and, 13; high voltage and, 22–23, 29, 62–66, 72, 134; home appliances and, 15, 443n14; incandescence and, 10; inductorium and, 13; light bulbs and, 10–11, 14–15, 18, 22, 29–30, 68, 116–18, 414n61; Marconi and, 16; Maxwell and, 16, 55, 403; nuclear power plants and, 354; ozone and, 151; polyester and, 277; radioactivity and, 42; Roentgen and, 22; Rollins and, 32; safety and, 11–15; static, 10, 106, 277; steam turbines and, 347; storms and, 9–10; Thompson and, 413n47; Todd and, 238; wattage and, 18; Westinghouse and, 11–14, 350
electrocution, 11–15, 19, 68–69, 412n11
“Electrocution of an Elephant” (film), 14
electrolytes, 177–78, 333
electromagnetism: atomic particles and, 59, 62, 74, 77; Bragg and, 244, 251, 253; as carcinogen, 312, 320, 443n14; cell phones and, 312, 322; Crookes tubes and, 29; dual nature of, 438n15; gamma rays and, 3, 35, 45–46, 59–62, 93, 101, 111, 113, 125, 133, 151, 155–56, 160, 174, 319, 334, 415nn14 and 15, 419n7, 423n76, 425n30, 426n38, 444n18; International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and, 312, 320, 443n14; light and, 7–9 (see also light); Maxwell and, 16, 55, 403; neurological symptoms and, 322–24; polarization and, 398–400, 404–5; radioactivity and, 45, 50; radio waves and, 16 (see also radio waves); Roentgen and, 29–30, 33, 405; spectrum and, 34–35, 158, 398, 422n72; wavelength and, 16, 33–37, 412nn20 and 27 (see also wavelength); x-rays and, 45 (see also x-rays)
electrons: atomic particles and, 23–24, 29, 36–37, 45, 51–52, 55–58, 61, 63, 68, 98, 134–35, 161, 399, 411n9, 413n36, 414n62, 417n14, 418n29; beta particles and, 45, 55, 58, 61, 155–56, 168, 184, 334, 419n7; cathode rays and, 22–24, 29; Crookes tubes and, 23 (see also Crookes tubes); discovery of, 51; energy state of, 37; excited state and, 37; ground state and, 37; ions and, 36–37, 45, 98, 240, 414n62, 422n68
electron shells, 62, 414n4
electron volt (eV), 59, 135, 417n22
Elliot, T. S., 164
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 7
energy state, 37
Enewetak Atoll, 167, 429n5, 430n9, 431n21
enhanced radiation bombs, 185–86
Enola Gay (bomber), 427n19
epicenter: bomb, 193–94, 393; earthquake, 349, 352, 356
epidemiology: associations and, 199, 314, 317; Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission (ABCC) and, 191, 197–98; attributable risk and, 439n15; case-control studies and, 194, 196–97, 204, 279, 312–14, 441n17, 443n14; causation and, 120, 317–20, 323; cell phones and, 312, 317–18, 320, 323; cohort studies and, 194–98, 203–5, 279, 292, 312–14, 323, 328, 441n17; death rates and, 15, 193, 291, 427n21; ecological studies and, 434n18; food and, 340; life expectancy and, 105, 191–92, 309; Life Span Study (LSS) and, 191, 196, 198–205, 227–29; life tables and, 192; linear no threshold (LNT) model and, 283–84, 440n11; odds ratios and, 440n17; radiation sickness and, 190–94, 198, 203–4, 227, 283; radon and, 279, 283; statistics and, 190–91, 194; tracking people and, 191; Tsuzuki and, 193–94
erythema, 98–99
ether, 242–43
eugenics, 218–19, 222–25, 252, 437n30
Evans, Robley, 103, 281, 340–41
evolution, 221–22
excited state, 37
exposure times, 27, 133, 281, 413n37; CT scans and, 200–201, 303–7, 370, 434n26; dose equivalence and, 107–9, 334, 422nn64 and 66, 437n38, 445n13; false-positives and, 291, 297–98, 301–2, 304, 308, 442n10; food and, 333–34; Haber’s Rule and, 281–82, 440n8; mammograms and, 297–301, 303, 308; maximum tolerable dose (MTD) and, 99, 102–4, 107, 109, 421n52; number needed to harm (NNH) and, 285–86, 295–96, 299, 301, 306–7, 314–15, 321, 338, 343, 361, 365, 442n7; number needed to treat (NNT) and, 286, 300–301, 307, 343, 442n7; working level month (WLM) and, 282–85, 440n9, 441n34
eye irritation, 97
fail-safe mechanisms, 354–55, 387
false-negatives, 308
false-positives, 291, 297–98, 301–2, 304, 308, 442n10
Faraday, Michael, 413n47
fault trees, 358–59, 380–81, 388
fear, 164; bombers and, 383–87; cell phones and, 311; Edison and, 11–12; electricity and, 9–12; exaggerated, 1–3, 292, 368; genetics and, 222, 224; health issues and, 1–3, 187–88, 191–92; irrational, 1–2; light bulbs and, 11; nuclear power and, 353, 367; radiation and, 1–4, 7–8, 368, 379, 382; risk assessment and, 1–2; of unknown, 1–4; of unseen, 1–4, 7–8; x-rays and, 3
Feather, Norman, 60, 425n31
Fermi, Enrico, 73–74, 418n42, 423n76, 431n18
filaments, 10, 22–23, 117
fireballs, 147, 173
Fisher, Nick, 330, 332, 338, 341
Flannery, James J., 126–28, 130, 279
Flannery, Joseph M., 126–28, 130, 279
fluorescence, xi, 33, 49; atomic particles and, 55, 62, 65, 67–68, 75; Becquerel and, 38–42, 48; Crookes tubes and, 22, 413n37; dial painters and, 86–92, 96–97, 100–103, 106, 175, 190, 247, 289, 331, 420n33, 425n23; minerals and, 38–39; occupational illness and, xii, 86, 102; paint and, xii, 86, 102, 419n12, 425n23; phosphorescence and, 414n1; Roentgen and, 22–25, 30–31; uranium sulfate and, 414n4
fluoroscopes, 30–32, 245
Foley-Ferguson, Suzanne, 311
food, xii; cancer and, 338–42; cesium and, 326, 330–39, 341, 343; cohort studies and, 328; current assessment of, 343–45; effective dose and, 334–40; Fisher and, 330, 332, 338, 341; heat and, 446n25; hydrogen bomb and, 331; irradiated, 446n25; Madigan and, 326–28, 330, 332, 338, 341, 344; milk and, 179–81, 343, 366, 446n25; mimicking of dietary nutrients and, 90, 331; number needed to harm (NNH) and, 338, 343; number needed to treat (NNT) and, 343; pasteurization and, 446n25; p
otassium elimination and, 337; radioactivity in, 326–45; radioisotopes and, 327–40, 345; radium and, 331, 333–34, 340; safety and, 330, 335–36, 445n11; salmon, 326; sushi, 329, 333, 336, 345; tuna, 165, 326–39, 341, 344–45, 429n3; uncertainty of dose modeling and, 340–43
Franklin, Benjamin, 9–10, 343
Franklin, Rosalind, 263, 265, 267
French Office of Protection Against Ionizing Radiation (OPRI), 101
fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster): easy care of, 213; genetics and, 207–17, 220, 222, 225–27, 229, 232–34, 243, 247, 324, 402, 435n14, 436n15, 437nn38 and 42, 444n18; Morgan and, 210–14, 233, 243, 402; Muller studies and, 207–17, 220, 222, 225–27, 229, 232–34, 243, 247, 324, 402, 435n14, 436n15, 437nn38 and 42, 444n18; radiation and, 207, 215, 216–18, 224–28; sex-ratio assay of, 214–16; short generation times of, 213; temperature effects on, 216–17
Fukushima nuclear power plant: breached seawall and, 353–54, 356–58; cesium and, 331, 333; cooling system of, 350, 354–56, 359, 362; earthquake damage to, 346–57, 362, 368–69, 372, 447n1, 447nn5 and 15; fail-safe mechanisms and, 354–55; General Electric and, 350; hostile populace and, 357; hydrogen gas explosions and, 419n47; new normal and, 370–71; normal accidents and, 362; normal life after, 367–68, 370–71; nuclear meltdown and, 350, 355–56, 359, 362; Pillitteri and, 346–48, 351–55, 447n1; P wave warning system of, 349–50; Reactor Unit One and, 346, 349, 354–55; size of, 350; steam turbines of, 347; TEPCO and, 350, 355–57, 447n15; thyroid cancer and, 365–66; tuna affected by, 330–33, 335, 343–45; upped dose limits and, 448n39
Galton, Francis, 222, 252
gamma rays: beryllium and, 59, 423n76; cancer and, 125, 133, 319; cobalt and, 426n38; Daghlian and, 111; discovery of, 415n14; dosimetrists and, 334; Irène Curie and, 59; Joliet and, 59; Marie Curie and, 93, 101; occupational illness and, 93, 101, 111, 113; polonium and, 61; in popular culture, 3; radiation sickness and, 151, 155–56, 160; radioactive decay and, 45–46; radioactive fallout and, 174; radon and, 425n30; wavelength of, 35, 46, 113; x-rays and, 46, 62, 93, 101, 415n15, 419n7, 444n18
Gamow, George, 65–66, 71
gas ionization chamber, 98, 404
gaslight, 11, 15
Gaunt, John, 192
Geiger counters, 156, 165
Geissler, Heinrich, 22
General Conference on Weights and Measures, 108
General Electric, 350, 412n17
genetics: amino acids and, 235–36, 241, 264; Aryanism and, 223; atomic bombs and, 206–7, 224, 227, 230; bacteria and, 243–44; cancer and, 36, 215, 229–30, 233, 269–71; cell death and, 230–31, 256, 269–70, 428n27; cell nucleus and, 211, 236, 240, 243, 256; Chicago Health Division and, 226–27; chromosomes and, 211, 214–17, 221, 243, 256, 436n15; Crick and, 234–35, 253, 263–67; Darwin and, 221–22, 431n20, 436n26; DNA and, 234–35 (see also DNA); dominant genes and, 209; dose response and, 216–17; eugenics and, 218–19, 222–25, 252, 437n30; fear and, 222, 224; fruit flies and, 207–17, 220, 222, 225–27, 229, 232–34, 243, 247, 324, 402, 435n14, 436n15, 437nn38 and 42, 444n18; hybridization and, 208, 211–12, 435n3; inheritance and, 207–13, 217, 219, 221, 225–30, 233, 256, 270, 370, 402, 435n1, 436n23, 437n42, 444n18; ionizing radiation and, 436n19; Life Span Study (LSS) and, 191, 196, 198–205, 227–29; Mendel and, 208–9, 211–12, 219–20, 233, 235, 237, 402, 435n4; mice and, 226–29, 420n7, 437n38; Miescher and, 235–37, 246; Morgan and, 210–14, 233, 243, 402; Muller and, 206–7, 210, 212–28, 232–33, 246–47, 324, 435nn13 and 14, 436n19, 437n42, 438n46, 444n18; mutations and, 206–7, 213–17, 222, 224–33, 256, 269–71, 370, 435nn13 and 14, 436n16, 437n42, 444n18; nucleotides and, 240–41, 264–65, 267; pea plants and, 208–9, 211, 212, 235, 237, 402; proteins and, 235–37, 241, 244, 247, 255–58, 262–66, 328; radiation and, 207, 215, 216–18, 224–33; recessive genes and, 209, 214, 225; rising US interest in, 221–22; Rochester study and, 226, 228–29; tolerance dose and, 217, 233; traits and, 138, 207–9, 211, 213–14, 221, 226, 243, 435nn3 and 5, 436n15; variants and, 209, 435n5; viruses and, 246–47; Watson and, 233–35, 253, 263–68, 438n46; x-rays and, 207, 222
germ theory, 118
Gibson, William, 346
Giconi, Ray, 377–78
Gilbert, René, 137
Gilman, John Ellis, 117
GI syndrome, 146–47, 153–54, 167–68, 230
gliomas, 313–16, 443n14
global warming, 289
gold foil, 55–56, 214, 252
graft versus host disease, 428n28
Graves, Alvin C., 111, 170–71
Great Depression, 218
Green Bank, West Virginia, 322–23
Griffith, Frederick, 243–44
ground state, 37
ground zero, 144–45, 147, 149, 152, 157–58, 163, 169, 172, 193–94, 199, 427n5, 428n30
Groves, Leslie, 432n52
Grubbe, Emil Herman: amputations of, 123; background of, 116–17, 423n4; cancer radiation therapy and, 116–24, 131, 134–35, 139, 246, 423n4, 424n11; claims of, 123–24; Crookes tubes and, 117; death of, 123; hand irritation of, 117; homeopathy and, 119–22; irritation hypothesis of, 120; light bulbs and, 116–17; mercenary nature of, 121; personal life of, 123; platinum mining and, 116–17; radiation therapy and, 424n11; x-rays and, 117–18
guanine, 240, 264
gynecology, 128, 130–31, 298–301, 303, 308, 417n27, 425n27, 426n34
Haber, Fritz, 262, 280–82, 439n36, 440n8
Haber’s Rule, 281–82, 440n8
Hahnemann, Christian Friedrich Samuel, 119
hair loss, 97, 153
half-life, 46–47, 92, 178, 180, 185, 332–34, 444n8
Hammer, William J., 94–95, 419n12
Hansen, Chuck, 384
Harley, Naomi, 291
Härting, F. H., 82
Harvard University Press, 267
Hashimoto, Isao, 430n11
hatters, 82–83
health issues: bacteria and, 120, 153, 232, 235, 243–44, 438n13, 439n36; blood cells and, 99, 102, 120, 136, 154, 156–57, 167, 174, 235, 426n39, 428n27; body burden and, 102–3, 336–37, 421n52; bone seekers and, 89–90, 92, 94, 175, 333; case-control studies and, 194, 196–97, 204, 279, 312–14, 441n17, 443n14; causation and, 120, 317, 320, 323; cell death and, 156, 158, 230–31, 233, 256, 269–70, 428n27; cohort studies and, 194–98, 203–5, 279, 292, 312–14, 323, 328, 441n17; CT scans and, 200–201, 303–7, 370, 434n26; dermatitis and, 97–99; DNA and, 270–71; dose limits and, 97, 99, 101, 203, 229–30, 283, 370–71, 448n39; dosimetrists and, 296, 331, 334; effective dose and, 294–96, 298–99, 303, 306, 334–40, 365, 367, 370–71, 442n6, 445nn13 and 15; electricity and, 13; electrolytes and, 177–78, 333; epidemiology and, 191; exposure times and, 27, 133, 281–82, 294–96, 298–99, 303, 306, 333–40, 365, 367, 370–71, 413n37, 440n8, 442n6, 445nn13 and 15; eye irritation and, 97; false-negatives and, 308; false-positives and, 291, 297–98, 301–2, 304, 308, 442n10; fear and, 1–3, 187–88, 191–92; Fukushima nuclear power plant and, 330–33, 335, 343–46, 349–50, 352, 356–57, 362, 364, 366–71, 419n47; genetics and, 230 (see also genetics); hair loss and, 97, 153; homeopathy and, 118–21, 126, 214, 443n13; hormesis and, 443n13; infertility and, 122, 324–25; ingestion and, 88, 90, 92, 96, 101–2, 179–80, 201; Life Span Study (LSS) and, 191, 196, 198–205, 227–29; linear no threshold (LNT) model and, 283–84, 440n11; mammograms and, 297–304, 307–8, 334; maximum tolerable dose (MTD) and, 99, 102–4, 107, 109, 421n52; mechanism of radiation damage and, 109–10; mercury and, 82–83, 119, 419n3; millisievert measurement and, 107–9, 282; “moving target” argument and, 300, 360, 387; number needed to harm (NNH) and, 285–86, 295–96, 299, 301, 306–7, 314–15, 321, 338, 343, 361, 365, 442n7; number needed to treat (NNT) and, 286, 300–301, 307, 343, 442n7; occupational illness and, 81–115 (see also occupational illness); odds ratios and, 286, 441n17; oncology and, 117, 134–35, 138, 140, 423n3, 441n1; radiation burns and, 31–32, 36–37, 67, 114, 121, 134, 149–52, 159, 163, 167–68, 174, 319; radiation sickness and, 141 (see also radiation sicknes
s); radioactive fallout and, 177–78 (see also radioactive fallout); relative risks and, 286, 441n17; smoking and, 201, 279–80, 284–91, 302, 422n64, 441n34; sterilization and, 97, 122–23, 217, 223, 226–27, 230–31, 423n9, 437n29, 444n18, 446n25; tolerance dose and, 217, 233; toxicity and, 15, 82–83, 104, 119, 169, 419n3, 423n76, 440n8; tumors and, 1, 115, 117, 120–25, 131–32, 134, 136–39, 204, 246, 299, 302, 304, 306, 313, 315–16, 318, 434n22, 441n1, 443n14; viruses and, 178–79, 232, 235, 246–47, 317, 328; working level month (WLM) and, 282–85, 440n9, 441n34; x-rays and,28–33
heat: atomic bombs and, 147, 149, 163 atomic particles and, 71, 75–76; bacteria and, 243, 446n25; body, 8; cathode rays and, 29; fire and, 8; food and, 446n25; fusion and, 75–76; insulation and, 252; kinetic energy and, 36; microwaves and, 114, 319; nuclear power plants and, 347, 350, 352, 355; thermodynamics and, 250, 347, 411n2
helium, 55, 58, 61–62, 417n14
Helmholtz, Hermann von, 20
hematopoietic syndrome, 156–57, 168, 428n28
hemoglobin, 102, 262
hepatitis, 168, 178
Hepburn, Audrey, ix
herbal medicine, 119
Hersey, John, 162, 328, 427n8
Hershey, Alfred, 247, 438n13
Hertz, Heinrich, 16–17, 27, 244
Hesse, W., 82
Heaviside, Oliver, 50
Hill, Mary, 94
Hill’s criteria of causation, 317–20
Hirohito, 161–62, 165, 357, 448n17
Hiroshima, 76, 262; cohort studies of, 191, 196, 198–205, 227–29; daily death rates in, 427n21; effects of bomb in, 145–52, 155, 158–63; heat from blast of, 146–47; Life Span Study (LSS) and, 191, 196, 198–205, 227–29; measuring radiation doses in, 190; misinformation over, 162–63; mushroom cloud over, 427n19; radiation sickness and, 145–52, 155, 158–63; radioactive fallout and, 166–69; Red Cross Hospital and, 145, 147, 188; Sasaki and, 145–58, 167, 188, 427n8; silent casualties of, 163; uranium bomb of, 159, 375–76, 426n3, 427n5, 431n21, 433n53, 447n8
Hiroshima (Hersey), 162, 427n8
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