by Will Durant
Returning to the Ferrer School, he fell in love with one of his pupils—who had been born Ida Kaufman in Russia on May 10, 1898—resigned his position, and married her (1913). For four years he took graduate work at Columbia University, specializing in biology under Morgan and Calkins and in philosophy under Woodbridge and Dewey. He received the doctorate in philosophy in 1917, and taught philosophy at Columbia University for one year. In 1914, in a Presbyterian church in New York, he began those lectures on history, literature, and philosophy that, continuing twice weekly for thirteen years, provided the initial material for his later works.
The unexpected success of The Story of Philosophy (1926) enabled him to retire from teaching in 1927. Thenceforth, except for some incidental essays Mr. and Mrs. Durant gave nearly all their working hours (eight to fourteen daily) to The Story of Civilization. To better prepare themselves they toured Europe in 1927, went around the world in 1930 to study Egypt, the Near East, India, China, and Japan, and toured the globe again in 1932 to visit Japan, Manchuria, Siberia, Russia, and Poland. These travels provided the background for Our Oriental Heritage (1935) as the first volume in The Story of Civilization. Several further visits to Europe prepared for Volume 2, The Life of Greece (1939), and Volume 3, Caesar and Christ (1944). In 1948, six months in Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Egypt, and Europe provided perspective for Volume 4, The Age of Faith (1950). In 1951 Mr. and Mrs. Durant returned to Italy to add to a lifetime of gleanings for Volume 5, The Renaissance (1953); and in 1954 further studies in Italy, Switzerland, Germany, France, and England opened new vistas for Volume 6, The Reformation (1957).
Mrs. Durant’s share in the preparation of these volumes became more and more substantial with each year, until in the case of Volume 7, The Age of Reason Begins (1961), it was so great that justice required the union of both names on the title page. And so it was on The Age of Louis XIV (1963), The Age of Voltaire (1965), and Rousseau and Revolution (winner of the Pulitzer Prize in 1968).
The publication of Volume 11, The Age of Napoleon, in 1975 concluded five decades of achievement. Ariel Durant died on October 25, 1981, at the age of 83; Will Durant died 13 days later, on November 7, aged 96. Their last published work was A Dual Autobiography (1977).
BY WILL DURANT
The Story of Philosophy
Transition
The Pleasure of Philosophy
Adventures in Genius
BY WILL AND ARIEL DURANT
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
1. Our Oriental Heritage
2. The Life of Greece
3. Caesar and Christ
4. The Age of Faith
5. The Renaissance
6. The Reformation
7. The Age of Reason Begins
8. The Age of Louis XIV
9. The Age of Voltaire
10. Rousseau and Revolution
11. The Age of Napoleon
The Lessons of History
Interpretation of Life
A Dual Autobiography
Notes
Capital Roman numerals, except at the beginning of a note, will usually indicate volumes, followed by page numbers; small Roman numerals will usually indicate “books” (main divisions) of a classical text, followed by chapter or verse numbers, and sometimes additionally by section or paragraph numbers.
CHAPTER I
1. Pliny, Natural History, xxxvii, 77.
2. Virgil, Georgics, ii, 149.
3. Ibid., ii, 198.
4. Strabo, Geography, v, 4. 8.
5. Polybius, History, i, 2. 15.
6. In Taine, Modern Regime, 17.
7. Aristotle, Physics, 1329b.
8. Thucydides, Peloponnesian War, vi, 18. 2.
9. Homo, Primitive Italy, 32; Toutain, Economic Life of the Ancient World, 207.
10. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, 1, 36.
11. Herodotus, Histories, v, 94; Strabo, v, 1. 2; Tacitus, Annals, iv, 55; Appian, Roman History, viii, 9. 66; etc. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, i, 30, regarded the Etruscans as indigenous to Italy; so did Mommsen, History of Rome, I, 155. Dennis, I, 17, Frank, Economic History of Rome, 16, Randall-Maclver, Etruscans, 23, and Rostovtzeff, History of the Ancient World, II, 180, accept the tradition.
12. Dennis, I, 39.
13. Paul-Louis, Ancient Rome at Work, 66; Toutain, 211.
14. Dennis, I, 329.
15. Athenaeus, Deipnosophists, xii, 3.
16. Garrison, History of Medicine, 119.
17. Castiglione, History of Medicine, 192.
18. Aristotle in Athenaeus, i, 19; Dennis, I, 321.
19. Ibid., 21.
20. Cambridge Ancient History, IV, 415.
21. Frazer, Sir J., Magic Art, II, 287.
22. Scholiast on Juvenal, vi, 565.
23. Frazer, 1. c.
24. CAH, IV, 420-1; Mommsen, I, 232-3; Dennis, II, 168.
25. Enc. Brit., VIII, 787.
26. Anderson and Spiers, Architecture of Greece and Rome, 121; Strong, E., Art in Ancient Rome, 21; CAH, VII, 386.
27. Pliny, xxxv, 6.
28. Rodenwaldt, G., Die Kunst der Antike: Hellas, 509.
29. Ovid, Fasti, iii, 15.
30. Livy, History of Rome, i, 9-13.
31. Frazer, II, 289.
32. Livy, i, 19.
33. Tacitus, Annals, iii, 26.
34. Cicero, De re publica, ii, 14.
35. Livy, i, 22.
36. Ibid., 27.
37. Dio Cassius, History of Rome, fragment vii.
38. Strabo, v, 2. 2.
39. Livy, i, 35.
40. Pais, E., Ancient Legends of Roman History, 38.
41. Cicero, Republica, ii, 21.
42. Livy, i, 46.
43. Pais, 137-8.
44. Dio, iii, 7, and frag. x, 2.
45. Livy, i. 56-7.
46. Syme, R., The Roman Revolution, 85n.
47. Cicero, Republica, i, 39; Coulanges, F., The Ancient City, 384.
48. Tacitus, Histories, iii, 72.
49. Mommsen, I, 414.
50. Dennis, I, 26.
51. Duff, J. W., Literary History of Rome, 6; CAH, IV, 407.
52. Livy, i, 8; Strabo, v, 2. 2; Dennis, II, 166.
53. CAH, VII, 384.
54. Livy, i, 8.
55. CAH, VIII, 387; Hammerton, J., Universal History of the World, II, 1158.
56. Strabo, v, 2. 2.
CHAPTER II
1. Livy, i, 8.
2. Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights, vi, 13.
3. Livy, ii, 56; CAH, VII, 456.
4. Aulus Gellius, xx, 1. 45-51; Dio, frag. xvi, 4.
5. Livy, ii, 23-30; Dio, iv, 7 and frag, xvi, 6; Dionysius, vi, 45; Plutarch, “Coriolanus.”
6. Livy, iv, 13; Dio, vi, 7.
7. Livy, iii, 52.
8. Dio, v, 7.
9. Ibid.
10. Livy, i, 43.
11. Frank, Economic History, 20; Smith, W., Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, s. v. exercitus.
12. Mommsen, III, 60.
13. Plutarch, “Pyrrhus.”
14. Coulanges, 244.
15. Dio, iv, 7.
16. Twelve Tables, iv, 1-3, in Monroe, P., Source Book, 337.
17. Twelve Tables, iii, 1-6.
18. Ibid., viii, 3.
19. Ibid., 21-26.
20. Cicero, Pro Roscio Amerino, 25-6.
21. Polybius, iii, 6.
22. Livy, vii, 24.
23. Vitruvius, De Architectura, ii, 12.
24. Polybius, vi, 37.
25. Frontinus, Stratagems and Aqueducts, iv, 1.
26. Frank, Economic History, 338; Id., Economic Survey of Ancient Rome, V, 160; Fowler, W. W., Social Life at Rome, 32; Edwards, H. J., Appendix A to Caesar, Gallic War.
27. Dio, vi, 95.
28. Livy, ii, 34; Dionysius, vii, 50; Dio, v, 7 and frag. xvii, 2; Appian, Roman History, ii, 5; Plutarch, “Coriolanus.”
29. Polybius, ii, 15-20.
30. Livy, v, 42.
31. Dio, vii, 7.
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32. Coulanges, 494.
33. Plutarch, “Sayings of Great Commanders,” in Moralia, 184C.
CHAPTER III
1. Mommsen, II, 138.
2. Smith, R. B., Carthage, 29.
3. Appian, viii, 95.
4. Polybius, vi, 56.
5. Plutarch, De re publica ger., iii, 6.
6. Frazer, Adonis, Attis, Osiris, I, 114.
7. Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, xx, 14.
8. St. Augustine, Letters, xvii, 2.
9. Appian, viii, 127.
10. Aristotle, Politics, 1272b.
11. Ibid., 1273a.
12. Polybius, iii, 22.
13. Strabo, xvii, 1. 19.
14. Polybius, i, 20-1.
15. Cicero, De Officiis, iii, 26; In Pisonem, 43.
16. Gellius, vii, 4.
17. Polybius, i. 80.
18. Smith, R. B., Carthage, 151.
19. Polybius, i, 87. Flaubert has told the story with perfect art in Salammbo.
20. Mommsen, ii, 223.
21. Dio, frag. Iii, 2.
22. Livy, xxi, 4.
23. Mommsen, II, 243.
24. Livy, xxi, 22.
25. Plutarch, Moralia, 195D.
26. Livy, xxii, 57.
27. Polybius, ii, 75, 118.
28. Livy, xxii, 50.
29. Livy, xxviii, 12.
30. Diodorus, xxvii, 9; Appian, vii, 59.
31. Ibid., viii, 134.
32. Livy, xxxix, 51.
CHAPTER IV
1. Twelve Tables, iv, 1.
2. St. Augustine, City of God, vi, 9.
3. Horace, Satires, i, 8, 35; Müller-Lyer, F., Evolution of Modern Marriage, 55; Castiglione, 195; Howard, C., Sex Worship, 65, 79; Enc. Brit., 11th ed., XVII, 467; XXI, 345.
4. Pliny, xxviii, 19.
5. Livy, xxiii, 31.
6. Virgil, Georgics, ii, 419; Horace, Odes, i, 1.25.
7. Frazer, Magic Art, II, 190; the derivation is questioned by Fowler, W. W., Roman Festivals of the Republic, 99.
8. Virgil, Aeneid, vii, 761; Ovid, Fasti, vi, 753; Metamorphoses, xv, 497; Strabo, v, 3.12; Pliny, xxx, 12-13; Frazer, Magic Art, I, 11.
9. Boissier, G., La réligion romaine, I, 27.
10. Livy, v, 21-2; vi, 29; Coulanges, 199.
11. Ovid, Metam., xv, 626.
12. Livy, viii, 15; Lanciani, R., Ancient Rome, 143.
13. Fowler, W. W., Religious Experience of the Roman People, 337.
14. Mommsen, III, 11.
15. Cicero, Pro Archia, 4; Fowler, op. cit., 30. The derivation is not certain; Cicero gives another in De natura deorum, ii, 28.
16. Reinach, S., Apollo, 109.
17. Livy, vii, 5.
18. Pliny, xxviii, 10.
19. Harrison, J., Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, 35.
20. Plautus, Curculio, 33-8.
21. Ovid, Fasti, iii, 523.
23. Howard, 66.
24. Athenaeus, xiv, 44.
25. Westermarck, E., Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, I, 430; Cicero, Pro Caelio, 20.
26. Brittain, A., Roman Women, 135-6.
27. Coulanges, 63.
28. Plutarch, “Numa and Lycurgus.”
29. Gellius, x, 23.
30. Abbott, F., Common People of Ancient Rome, 87.
31. Catullus, Poems, xxv.
32. Pliny, xxxiii, 16.
33. Fowler, W. W., Social Life at Rome, 50-1, 270.
34. Polybius, xxxi, 26.
35. Ibid., vi, 56.
36. Cf. Appian, vi, passim.
37. Polybius, vi, 58.
38. Plutarch, Quaestiones Romanae, 59.
39. Livy, iii, 38.
40. Heine, H., Memoirs, I, 12.
41. Thompson, Sir E., Greek and Latin Paleography, 5.
42. Schlegel, A. W., Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature, 202.
43. Livy, vii, 2; Bieber, N., History of the Greek and Roman Theater, 307.
44. In Duff, J., Literary History of Rome, 130.
45. Castiglione, 196.
46. Lanciani, R., Ancient Rome, 53.
47. Glover, T. R., Conflict of Religions in the Early Roman Empire, 13; Fried-lander, L., Roman Life and Manners under the Early Empire, III, 141.
48. Twelve Tables, x, 9.
49. Pliny, xxix, 6.
50. Frank, Economic Survey, I, 12; CAH, VII, 417; for the contrary cf. Mommsen, History, I, 193, 238.
51. Pliny, xviii, 3.
52. Virgil, Georgics, i, 299.
53. Guhl, E., and Koner, W., Life of the Greeks and Romans, 503.
54. Cato, de agri cultura, viii; Varro, Rerum rusticarum libri tres, pref.
55. Cicero, Letters, vii, 1.
56. Pliny, xxxiii, 13.
57. CAH, VIII, 345.
58. Mommsen, History, III, 75.
59. CAH, X, 395; Frank, Economic History of Rome, 340. For other comparative prices cf. ibid., 66.
60. Twelve Tables, viii, 18; Tacitus, Annals, vi, 16.
61. Livy, vii, 19-21, 42.
62. Paul-Louis, 118.
63. Frank, Economic History, 119; for a contrary view cf. Ward, C. O., The Ancient Lowly, 208-9.
64. Livy, viii, 12; Dionysius of Halicarnassus, ix, 43.
65. Mommsen, History, I, 248-9; Paul-Louis, 47.
66. 77% between 200 and 150 B.C.—Frank, Economic Survey, I, 146.
67. Ibid., 41; CAH, VIII, 344; Paul-Louis, 102; Mommsen, History, II, 55.
68. Pliny, xxxvi, 24.
69. Enc. Brit., XIX, 466.
70. Rickard, T., Man and Metals, I, 280.
71. Twelve Tables, x, 4.
72. E.g. in Plautus’ Captives, 998.
73. Lucian, Dialogues of the Dead, xxv.
CHAPTER V
1. Livy, iv, 302.
2. Plutarch, “Flamininus.”
3. Livy, xliv, 22.
4. Appian, vi, 9-10; Mommsen, History, III, 220.
5. Livy, xxxix, 7; Mommsen, 201.
6. Polybius, vi, 17.
7. Davis, W. S., Influence of Wealth in Imperial Rome, 74, 77; Mommsen, III, 83.
8. Polybius, xxxi, 25; Mommsen, III, 127; Sellar, W. Y., Roman Poets of the Republic, 234.
9. Mommsen, III, 40.
10. Polybius, xxxi, 25.
11. Guhl, 490.
12. Plutarch, “Cato the Elder.”
13. Livy, xxxiv, 1.
14. Brittain, 95.
15. Polybius, xxx, 14.
16. Mommsen, III, 21, 127.
17. Ibid., 44, 294, 301-2.
18. CAH, VIII, 359.
19. Plutarch, “Marcellus.”
20. Anderson, 137.
21. Cicero, De divinatione, ii, 24.52.
22. Polybius, vi, 56.
23. Livy, xxxix, 8.
24. Cicero, De re publica, ii, 19.
24a. Horace, Epistles, ii, 1.156.
25. Cicero, De senectute, viii, 26.
26. Cf. Bk. II of the Republic.
27. Appian, vi, 9.53.
28. Ennius, Telamo, frag, in Duff, 141.
29. Cicero, De div., ii, 50.
30. Ennius, frag, in Gellius, xii, 4.
31. Ennius in Cicero, Disp. Tuse., ii, 1.1.
32. Collins, W. L., Plautus and Terence, 33-4; Matthews, B., Development of the Drama, 98.
33. Cicero, De re publica, iv, 10.
34. Collins, 45.
35. Plautus, Amphitryon, iii, 2, 4.
36. Batiffol, L., Century of the Renaissance, 164.
37. Suetonius, On Poets, “Terence,” ii.
38. Terence, Heauton Timoroumenos, prologue.
39. Terence, Adelphi, prologue.
40. Suetonius, 1. c.
41. Plutarch, Moralia, 198E, 199C.
42. Pliny, vii, 28.
43. Livy, xxxix, 42; Plutarch, “Cato the Elder.”
44. Fowler, Social Life, 191.
45. Pliny, viii, 11.
46. Plutarch, 1. c.
47. Ibid., Pliny, xxix, 7.
; 48. Appian, viii, 14.
49. Strabo, xvii, 3.15.
CHAPTER VI
1. Mommsen, History, III, 306.
2. Livy, xli, 28; xlv, 34.
3. Ibid., xxxix, 29.
4. Heitland, W., Agricola, 161; Ward, I, 121.
5. Dio Cassius, xxxiv, frag. ii, 23; Livy, Epitome of Book xc.
6. Plutarch, “Tiberius Gracchus.”
7. Ibid.
8. Appian, Civil Wars, i, 1.
9. Pliny, xxxiii, 14.
10. Appian, Civil Wars, i, 3.
11. Julius Philippus in Cicero, De off., ii, 21.
12. Appian, Civil Wars, i, 4.
13. Plutarch, “Marius.”
14. Sallust, Jugurthine War, xiii, xx-xxviii.
15. Plutarch, 1. c.
16. Ibid.
17. Plutarch, “Sylla.”
18. Sallust, xcv.
19. Ibid., xcvi.
20. Mommsen, IV, 142.
21. Appian, Civil Wars, i, 8.
22. Plutarch, 1. c.
23. Ibid.
24. Ibid.
CHAPTER VII
1. Plutarch, “Caesar.”
2. Davis, 13-14.
3. Cicero, Ad Atticum, iv, 15.
4. Plutarch, “Pompey.”
5. Cicero, Ad Quintum, ii, 5.
6. Cicero, Letters, iii, 29.
7. Cicero, Ad Quintum, iii, 2.
8. Mommsen, V, 349.
9. Plutarch, “Cicero.”
10. Cicero, I In Verrem, 13.
11. Frank, Economic History, 295.
12. Mommsen, IV, 173.
13. Frank, 289.
14. Cicero, De off., i, 8.
15. Plutarch, 1. c. of History, 238.
16. Nepos, “Atticus.”
17. Plutarch, “Lucullus.”
18. Frank, Economic Survey, I, 354.
19. Macrobius, Saturnalia, iii, 13.
20. Varro, iii, 16; Cicero, Letters, ix, 18; Mommsen, V, 387.
22. Cicero, Letters, vii, 26.
23. Pliny, xxxvi, 24.
24. L. c.
25. Historiae Augustae, “Alex. Severus,” 33; Livy, xxxix, 8f; Mommsen, V, 384; Ward, I, 406.
