3. On Vespucci: L. Formisano, ed., Letters from a New World: Amerigo Vespucci’s Discovery of America (New York, 1992); F. Fernández-Armesto, Amerigo: the Man Who Gave His Name to America (London, 2006).
4. The World Encompassed by Sir Francis Drake, being his Next Voyage to that to Nombre de Dios formerly imprinted, Carefully collected out of the notes of Master Francis Fletcher (London, 1628); this phrase is taken as the title of Geoffrey Scammell, The World Encompassed: the First European Maritime Empires, c. 800–1650 (London, 1981); H. Kelsey, Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo (2nd edn, San Marino, Calif.,1998).
5. W. Keegan and C. Hofman, The Caribbean before Columbus (Oxford and New York, 2017), p. 23.
6. D. Abulafia, The Discovery of Mankind: Atlantic Encounters in the Age of Columbus (New Haven, 2008), pp. 115–30.
7. Keegan and Hofman, Caribbean before Columbus, pp. 11–15; P. Siegel, ‘Caribbean Archaeology in Historical Perspective’, pp. 21–46, and other articles in W. Keegan, C. Hofman and R. Rodríguez Ramos, The Oxford Handbook of Caribbean Archaeology (Oxford and New York, 2013); J. Granberry and G. Vescelius, Languages of the pre-Columbian Antilles (Tuscaloosa, 2004); F. Moya Pons and R. Flores Paz, eds, Los Taínos en 1492: el debate demográfico (Santo Domingo, 2013); I. Rouse, The Tainos: Rise and Decline of the People Who Greeted Columbus (New Haven, 1992).
8. S. Wilson, The Archaeology of the Caribbean (Cambridge, 2007), pp. 95–136.
9. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, p. 140; Ramon Pané, An Account of the Antiquities of the Indians, ed. J. J. Arrom and transl. S. Griswold (Durham, NC, 1999), ch. 10.
10. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, p. 181.
11. W. Keegan, The People Who Discovered Columbus (Gainesville, 1992), pp. 49–51; also Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, p. 146.
12. Wilson, Archaeology of the Caribbean, pp. 137–54.
13. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, pp. 175–6.
14. Williamson, ed., Cabot Voyages, pp. 208–9, no. 23; Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, p. 219.
15. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, p. 199.
16. D. C. West and A. Kling, eds., The Libro de las profecías of Christopher Columbus (Gainesville, 1991).
17. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, p. 13.
18. Fernández-Armesto, Columbus, pp. 17–20.
19. Flint, Imaginative Landscape, p. 40, plate 12.
20. Henry Yule and Henri Cordier, transl. and eds., The Travels of Marco Polo: the Complete Yule–Cordier Edition (3 vols. bound as 2, New York, 1993), vol. 2, p. 253.
21. Ibid., pp. 253–5.
22. Focus Behaim-Globus (2 vols., Nuremberg, 1992); Fernández-Armesto, Columbus, p. xxi; Phillips and Phillips, Worlds of Christopher Columbus, pp. 79–80.
23. Fernández-Armesto, Columbus, p. 1.
24. Jones and Condon, Cabot and Bristol’s Age of Discovery, p. 21.
25. Fernández-Armesto, Columbus, p. 17.
26. C. Varela, Colombo e i Fiorentini (Florence, 1991), pp. 55–60.
27. F. Bruscoli, ‘John Cabot and His Italian Financiers’, Historical Research, vol. 85 (2012), pp. 372–93; and Jones and Condon, Cabot and Bristol’s Age of Discovery, pp. 33–4, both published as part of a wider ‘John Cabot Project’ at the University of Bristol.
28. Varela, Colombo e i Fiorentini, pp. 44–100 (pp. 75–81 for Vespucci and Columbus).
29. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, p. 28.
30. Ibid., pp. 105–7.
31. Fernández-Armesto, Columbus, p. 97.
32. Ibid., pp. 72–94.
33. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, p. 238.
34. Fernández-Armesto, Columbus, pp. 102–14.
35. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, pp. 216–17.
36. Fernández-Armesto, Columbus, pp. 124–51.
37. E. Mira Caballos, La gran armada colonizadora de Nicolás de Ovando, 1501–1502 (Santo Domingo, 2014).
38. C. Jant, ed., The Four Voyages of Columbus (2 vols., London, 1929–32), vol.2, pp. 90–93.
39. Fernández-Armesto, Columbus, pp. 161–83.
40. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, p. 112.
41. C. Varela, La caída de Cristóbal Colón: el juicio de Bobadilla (Madrid, 2006); Pané, Account of the Antiquities of the Indians.
42. C. Rogers, ‘Christopher Who?’, History Today, vol. 67 (August 2017), pp. 38–49; Keegan and Hofman, Caribbean before Columbus, pp. 8, 14.
43. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, pp. 190–92.
44. Ibid., pp. 13, 179.
45. E. Jones, ‘The Matthew of Bristol and the Financiers of John Cabot’s 1497 Voyage to North America’, English Historical Review, vol. 121 (2006), pp. 778–95; Williamson, ed., Cabot Voyages, p. 206, nos. 19–20; A. Williams, John Cabot and Newfoundland (St John’s, Nfdl., 1996); J. Butman and S. Targett, New World, Inc.: How England’s Merchants Founded America and Launched the British Empire (London, 2018), pp. 25–7.
46. Jones, ‘Alwyn Ruddock’, pp. 230–31.
47. Ibid., pp. 224–6, 253–4.
48. N. Wey Gómez, The Tropics of Empire: Why Columbus Sailed South to the Indies (Cambridge, Mass., 2008).
49. Williamson, ed., Cabot Voyages, p. 210, no. 24; Williamson, ibid., p. 41; Jones, ‘Alwyn Ruddock’, p. 230.
50. Bruscoli, ‘John Cabot and His Italian Financiers’; Jones, ‘Alwyn Ruddock’, pp. 231–2, 235–6.
51. Williamson, ed., Cabot Voyages, pp. 204–5, no. 18.
52. Jones and Condon, Cabot and Bristol’s Age of Discovery, pp. 39–48.
53. Williamson, ed., Cabot Voyages, pp. 208–9, no. 23; Jones and Condon, Cabot and Bristol’s Age of Discovery, p. 18.
54. Williamson, ed., Cabot Voyages, p. 213, no. 25.
55. Jones and Condon, Cabot and Bristol’s Age of Discovery, pp. 49–56.
56. Williamson, ed., Cabot Voyages, p. 220, no. 31 (i); cf. Williamson, Voyages of John and Sebastian Cabot, p. 15.
57. Williamson, ed., Cabot Voyages, p. 207, no. 21.
58. Ibid., p. 233, no. 40; also Williamson, ibid., pp. 109–11; Jones, ‘Alwyn Ruddock’, pp. 244–5.
59. Williamson, ed., Cabot Voyages, p. 202, no. 15; also Williamson, ibid., pp. 26–9.
60. S. E. Morison, Portuguese Voyages to America in the Fifteenth Century (Cambridge, Mass., 1940), pp. 51–68.
61. Ibid., pp. 68–72.
62. Ibid., p. 52; cf. Williamson, Voyages of John and Sebastian Cabot, pp. 14–15; Williamson in Cabot Voyages, pp. 132–9.
63. For dubious claims to Danish support, see S. Larsen, Dinamarca e Portugal no século XV (Lisbon, 1983).
29. Other Routes to the Indies
1. C. R. Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire 1415–1825 (London, 1991), pp. 35–7.
2. M. Kriegel and S. Subrahmanyam, ‘The Unity of Opposites: Abraham Zacut, Vasco da Gama and the Chronicler Gaspar Correia’, in A. Disney and E. Booth, eds., Vasco da Gama and the Linking of Europe and Asia (New Delhi, 2000), pp. 48–71.
3. D. Abulafia, The Discovery of Mankind: Atlantic Encounters in the Age of Columbus (New Haven, 2008), pp. 24–30.
4. C. Verlinden, The Beginnings of Modern Colonization (Ithaca, NY, 1970), pp. 181–95; S. E. Morison, Portuguese Voyages to America in the Fifteenth Century (Cambridge, Mass., 1940), pp. 44–50.
5. S. Subrahmanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama (Cambridge, 2007), pp. 54–7.
6. Popular accounts: R. Watkins, Unknown Seas: How Vasco da Gama Opened the East (London, 2003); N. Cliff, The Last Crusade: the Epic Voyages of Vasco da Gama (London, 2012); best of all, R. Crowley, Conquerors: How Portugal Seized the Indian Ocean and Forged the First Global Empire (London, 2015).
7. L. Adão da Fonseca, Vasco da Gama: o Homem, a Viagem, a Época (Lisbon, 1998), pp. 9–80; G. Ames, Vasco da Gama: Renaissance Crusader (New York, 2005), pp. 17–21.
8. E. Ravenstein, ed., A Journal of the First Voyage of Vasco da Gama 1497–1499 (new edn with introduction by J. M. Garcia, New Delhi and Madras, 1998), pp. 6–7.
9. Ibid., pp. 11, 13.
10. Ibid., pp.
17–20.
11. Ibid., p. 23.
12. Ibid.,
13. Ibid., p. 36.
14. Fonseca, Vasco da Gama, pp. 149–52.
15. Ravenstein, ed., Journal of the First Voyage, pp. 48, 53–5; Fonseca, Vasco da Gama, pp. 142–3.
16. Ravenstein, ed., Journal of the First Voyage, pp. 52 n. 3, 53 illustration, 53–4 n. 2, 54 n. 2.
17. Ibid., p. 36 n. 1.
18. ‘Letter of Pedro Vaz de Caminha to King Manuel, 1 May 1500’, in W. Greenlee, ed., The Voyage of Pedro Álvares Cabral to Brazil and India from Contemporary Documents and Narratives (London, 1938); Morison, Portuguese Voyages to America, pp. 119–42.
19. Greenlee, ed., Voyage of Pedro Álvares Cabral, pp. lxvii–lxix; Crowley, Conquerors, pp. 101–17.
20. ‘Letter of Amerigo Vespucci to Lorenzo de’ Medici’, in Greenlee, ed., Voyage of Pedro Álvares Cabral, pp. 153–61.
21. Crowley, Conquerors, pp. 113–14; Subrahmanyam, Career and Legend, pp. 182–4; Ames, Vasco da Gama, pp. 84–5.
22. Subrahmanyam, Career and Legend, pp. 201–2, 206–10; Ames, Vasco da Gama, pp. 86, 89–90.
23. Ames, Vasco da Gama, pp. 93–4.
24. Subrahmanyam, Career and Legend, pp. 221–5; Ames, Vasco da Gama, pp. 93–100.
25. Subrahmanyam, Career and Legend, pp. 229–31.
26. D. Mearns, D. Parham and B. Frohlich, ‘A Portuguese East Indiaman from the 1502–1503 Fleet of Vasco da Gama off Al Hallaniyah Island, Oman: an Interim Report’, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, vol. 45 (2016), pp. 331–51.
27. Girolamo Priuli cited by Crowley, Conquerors, p. 116.
28. ‘The Diary of Girolamo Priuli’, in Greenlee, ed., Voyage of Pedro Álvares Cabral, p. 136; also p. 134.
29. See also ‘Letters sent by Bartolomeo Marchioni to Florence’, in Greenlee, ed., Voyage of Pedro Álvares Cabral, p. 149.
30. K. O’Rourke and J. Williamson, Did Vasco da Gama Matter for European Markets? Testing Frederick Lane’s Hypothesis Fifty Years Later (IIIS Discussion Paper no. 118, Dublin, 2006); E. Ashtor, ‘La Découverte de la voie maritime aux Indes et le prix des épices’, Mélanges en l’honneur de Fernand Braudel, vol. 1: Histoire économique du monde Méditerranéen (Toulouse, 1973), pp. 31–48; F. C. Lane, ‘Pepper Prices before da Gama’, Journal of Economic History, vol. 28 (1968), pp. 590–97.
31. ‘Letters sent by Bartolomeo Marchioni to Florence’, in Greenlee, ed., Voyage of Pedro Álvares Cabral, pp. 147–9; F. Guidi Bruscoli, Bartolomeo Marchionni ‘Homem de grossa fazenda’ (ca. 1450–1530) (Florence, 2014), pp. 135–86; K. Lowe, ‘Understanding Cultural Exchange between Portugal and Italy in the Renaissance’, in K. Lowe, ed., Cultural Links between Portugal and Italy in the Renaissance (Oxford, 2000), pp. 8–9; M. Spallanzani, Mercanti fiorentini nell’Asia portoghese (Florence, 1997), pp. 47–51.
32. Armando Cortesão, transl. and ed., The Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires (London, 1944), vol. 2, p. 268; M. Pearson, ‘The East African Coast in 1498’, in Disney and Booth, eds., Vasco da Gama, pp. 116–30; M. Pearson, Port Cities and Intruders: the Swahili Coast, India, and Portugal in the Early Modern Era (Baltimore, 1998), pp. 40–43.
33. Pearson, Port Cities and Intruders, pp. 131–4.
34. E. Axelson, Portuguese in South-East Africa 1488–1600 (Cape Town, 1973), p. 35; E. Axelson, South-East Africa 1488–1530 (London, 1940), p. 59.
35. S. Welch, South Africa under King Manuel 1495–1521 (Cape Town and Johannesburg, 1946), p. 133.
36. Axelson, South-East Africa, p. 61.
37. Ibid., pp. 64–73; Welch, South Africa under King Manuel, pp. 138–41; Crowley, Conquerors, pp. 164–6.
38. Axelson, South-East Africa, pp. 73–8; quotation from Crowley, Conquerors, p. 170.
39. Axelson, South-East Africa, pp. 79–87, 110 n. 2, 112, 118–20; Axelson, Portuguese in South-East Africa, pp. 38–52.
40. Axelson, South-East Africa, pp. 98–107.
30. To the Antipodes
1. Thomas More, Utopia, ed. G. Logan and R. Adams (Cambridge, 1989), p. 10.
2. L. Formisano, ed., Letters from a New World: Amerigo Vespucci’s Discovery of America (New York, 1992), app. E, p. 128.
3. F. Fernández-Armesto, Amerigo: the Man Who Gave His Name to America (London, 2006).
4. [Vespucci], Letters from a New World, app. E, p. 151.
5. Ibid., ep. VI, p. 67; Lettera di Amerigo Vespucci delle isole nouamente trouate in quattro suoi viaggi (Florence, 1505), f. 5v.
6. [Vespucci], Letters from a New World, ep. VI, p. 68; Lettera di Amerigo Vespucci, f. 5v.
7. [Vespucci], Letters from a New World, ep. VI, p. 69; Lettera di Amerigo Vespucci, f. 6r.
8. [Vespucci], Letters from a New World, ep. VI, p. 69; Lettera di Amerigo Vespucci, f. 6r.
9. [Vespucci], Letters from a New World, ep. VI, p. 71; Lettera di Amerigo Vespucci, f. 7r.
10. Cf. [Vespucci], Letters from a New World, ep. I, p. 11.
11. Ibid., ep. V, p. 47.
12. Ibid., p. 45.
13. D. Abulafia, The Discovery of Mankind: Atlantic Encounters in the Age of Columbus (New Haven, 2008), pp. 287–92; D. MacCulloch, A History of Christianity (London, 2009), p. 783.
14. G. Eatough, ed., Selections from Peter Martyr (Turnhout, 1998), section 1:9:8.
15. W. Phillips, ed., Testimonies from the Columbian Lawsuits (Turnhout, 2000), section 13:4.
16. L. Vigneras, The Discovery of South America and the Andalusian Voyages (Chicago, 1976), p. 124.
17. Ibid., pp. 103–4.
18. R. Fuson, Juan Ponce de León and the Spanish Discovery of Puerto Rico and Florida (Blacksburg, Va., 2000); D. Peck, Ponce de León and the Discovery of Florida: the Man, the Myth and the Truth (Florida, 1995).
19. J. Milanich, Florida’s Indians from Ancient Times to the Present (Gainesville, 1998); J. Milanich, Florida Indians and the Invasion from Europe (Gainesville, 1995).
20. D. Keith, J. Duff, S. James, et al., ‘The Molasses Reef Wreck, Turks and Caicos Islands, B.W.I.: a Preliminary Report’, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Exploration, vol. 13 (1984), pp. 45–63; D. Keith, ‘The Molasses Reef Wreck’, in Heritage at Risk, Special Edition – Underwater Cultural Heritage at Risk: Managing Natural and Human Impacts, ed. R. Grenier, D. Nutley and I. Cochran (International Council on Monuments and Sites, Paris, April 2006), pp. 82–4.
21. P. Chaunu, Séville et l’Amérique aux XVIe et XVIIe siècles (Paris, 1977), pp. 75–6.
22. T. Floyd, The Columbus Dynasty in the Caribbean 1492–1526 (Albuquerque, 1973).
23. A. Devereux, Juan Ponce de León, King Ferdinand and the Fountain of Youth (Spartanburg, 1993).
24. T. Lester, The Fourth Part of the World: the Epic Story of History’s Greatest Map (London, 2009).
25. ‘Mundus Novus’, ‘Terra Sanctae Crucis’, ‘Terra de Brazil’, plus ‘America Noviter Reperta’: collection of the Jagiellonian University, Kraków; cf. the claims of S. Missinne, The Da Vinci Globe (Newcastle upon Tyne, 2018).
26. J. Williamson, The Voyages of John and Sebastian Cabot (London, 1937), pp. 17–18.
27. For highly sceptical views of the Gonneville narrative see J. L. de Pontharouart, Paulmier de Gonneville: son voyage imaginaire (Beauval-en-Caux, 2000), and the Australian Journal of French Studies, vol. 50 (2013), special issue edited by M. Sankey: M. Sankey, ‘The Abbé Jean Paulmier and French Missions in the Terres Australes’, pp. 3–15; J. Truchot, ‘Dans le miroir d’un cacique normand’, pp. 16–34; J. Leblond, ‘L’Abbé Paulmier descendant d’un étranger des Terres australes?’, pp. 35–49; J. Letrouit, ‘Paulmier faussaire’, pp. 50–74; W. Jennings, ‘Gonneville’s Terra Australis: Too Good to be True?’, pp. 75–86; M. Sankey, ‘L’Abbé Paulmier and the Rights of Man’, pp. 87–99.
28. Paulmier de Gonneville, Relation authentique du voyage du Capitaine de Gonneville ès nouvelles terres des Indes, ed. M. d’Avézac (Paris, 1869), pp. 88–91; other editions: L. Perrone-Moisés, ed., Vinte Luas: viagem de Paul
mier de Gonneville ao Brasil: 1503–1505 (São Paulo, 1992); Le Voyage de Gonneville (1501–1505) et la découverte de la Normandie par les Indiens du Brésil (Paris, 1995); I. Mendes dos Santos, La Découverte du Brésil (Paris, 2000), pp. 121–42.
29. Gonneville, Relation authentique, p. 88.
30. B. Diffie and G. Winius, Europe and the World in an Age of Expansion, vol. 1: Foundations of the Portuguese Empire 1415–1580 (Minneapolis, 1977), p. 449.
31. M. Mollat, Le Commerce maritime normand à la fin du Moyen ge: Étude d’histoire économique et sociale (Paris, 1952).
32. P. Whitfield, The Charting of the Oceans: Ten Centuries of Maritime Maps (London, 1996), pp. 54–8.
33. Gonneville, Relation authentique, pp. 93, 95.
34. Ibid., pp. 99–102.
35. Ibid., pp. 105–6, 109.
36. Dos Santos, Découverte du Brésil, p. 28.
37. Ibid., pp. 147–8.
38. Ibid., p. 29.
39. Ibid., pp. 143–59.
40. Mollat, Commerce maritime normand, pp. 120–21, 195, 215–21.
41. H. Touchard, Le Commerce maritime breton à la fin du Moyen ge (Paris, 1967), pp. 288–9; L. Wroth, The Voyages of Giovanni da Verrazzano (New Haven, 1970), pp. 8–9, 25–7.
42. Mollat, Commerce maritime normand, pp. 498–507.
43. Ibid., p. 501; Wroth, Voyages of Giovanni da Verrazzano, pp. 10–11, 57–64.
44. Cited by G. Masini and I. Gori, How Florence Invented America: Vespucci, Verrazzano, and Mazzei and Their Contribution to the Conception of the New World (New York, 1998), p. 101.
45. Wroth, Voyages of Giovanni da Verrazzano, pp. 14–16, 28–9.
46. M. Mollat du Jourdin and J. Habert, Giovanni et Girolamo Verrazano, navigateurs de François Ier: Dossiers de voyages (Paris, 1982), pp. ix–x, 53, 66–7, 99.
47. H. Murphy, The Voyage of Verrazzano: a Chapter in the Early History of Maritime Discovery in America (New York, 1875).
48. Wroth, Voyages of Giovanni da Verrazzano, p. 228.
49. Ibid., pp. 255–62; Mollat du Jourdin and Habert, Giovanni et Girolamo Verrazano, pp. 117, 122–3.
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