31. The Binding of the Oceans
1. John Keats, ‘On First Looking into Chapman’s Homer’.
2. D. Abulafia, The Discovery of Mankind: Atlantic Encounters in the Age of Columbus (New Haven, 2008), pp. 302–5.
3. G. Williams, ed., The Quest for the Northwest Passage (London, 2007); H. Dalton, Merchants and Explorers: Roger Barlow, Sebastian Cabot, and Networks of Atlantic Exchange 1500–1560 (Oxford, 2016).
4. J. Evans, Merchant Adventurers: the Voyage of Discovery That Transformed Tudor England (London, 2013).
5. R. Silverberg, The Longest Voyage: Circumnavigators in the Age of Discovery (Athens, Oh., 1972), pp. 98–9; H. Kelsey, The First Circumnavigators: Unsung Heroes of the Age of Discovery (New Haven, 2016).
6. T. Joyner, Magellan (Camden, Me., 1992), pp. 38–49.
7. A. Pigafetta, Magellan’s Voyage: a Narrative Account of the First Circumnavigation, ed. and transl. R. Skelton (2 vols., New Haven, 1994), vol. 1, p. 116; Joyner, Magellan, pp. 48–51; S. E. Morison, The Great Explorers: the European Discovery of America (New York, 1976), p. 553; M. Mitchell, Elcano: the First Circumnavigator (London, 1958), p. 69.
8. G. Badger, ed., and J. Winter Jones, transl., The Travels of Ludovico di Varthema in Egypt, Syria, Arabia Deserta and Arabia Felix, in Persia, India, and Ethiopia, A.D. 1503 to 1508 (London, 1863), pp. lxxvii, xcii–iii, 245–6; Joyner, Magellan, pp. 311–12 n. 50.
9. M. Camino, Exploring the Explorers: Spaniards in Oceania, 1519–1794 (Manchester, 2008), pp. 23–4.
10. M. Meilink-Roelofsz, Asian Trade and European Influence in the Indonesian Archipelago between 1500 and about 1630 (The Hague, 1962), pp. 123–35.
11. Note the misleading title of L. Bergreen, Over the Edge of the World: Magellan’s Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe (London, 2003).
12. Morison, Great Explorers, p. 553; Kelsey, First Circumnavigators, pp. 25–7.
13. Silverberg, Longest Voyage, pp. 97, 116–17; Mitchell, Elcano, pp. 41–2.
14. Mitchell, Elcano, p. 51.
15. A. Pigafetta, The First Voyage around the World, 1519–1522: an Account of Magellan’s Expedition, ed. T. Cachey (Toronto, 2007); Pigafetta, Magellan’s Voyage, vol. 1, based on the French version in the Beinecke Library, Yale University, reproduced in facsimile in vol. 2; Magellan’s logbook, an account by Genoese pilot and other sources in The First Voyage round the World by Magellan translated from the Account of Pigafetta and Other Contemporary Letters, ed. Lord Stanley of Alderley (London, 1874).
16. Mitchell, Elcano, pp. 54–7.
17. Pigafetta, Magellan’s Voyage, vol. 1, pp. 46–50.
18. Morison, Great Explorers, pp. 599–600, with drawing of Schöner’s western hemisphere.
19. M. Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South Land (London, 1999), pp. 8–9; N. Crane, Mercator: the Man Who Mapped the Planet (London, 2002), pp. 97–100; A. Taylor, The World of Gerard Mercator: the Mapmaker Who Revolutionized Geography (New York, 2004), pp. 88–90.
20. Pigafetta, Magellan’s Voyage, vol. 1, pp. 51–2, 57, 155.
21. Ibid., pp. 57, 60, 148.
22. Bergreen, Over the Edge of the World, pp. 211–14, 374–5, 381.
23. Pigafetta, Magellan’s Voyage, vol. 1, pp. 60–62.
24. Ibid., pp. 67–9.
25. For example, ibid., pp. 95, 101, 103 (source of quotation).
26. Ibid., p. 75.
27. Ibid., pp. 79–84.
28. Ibid., pp. 87–9; Joyner, Magellan, pp. 191–6; Camino, Exploring the Explorers, p. 25.
29. Pigafetta, Magellan’s Voyage, vol. 1, p. 100; Mitchell, Elcano, p. 65.
30. Pigafetta, Magellan’s Voyage, vol. 1, pp. 113, 116.
31. Ibid., pp. 119–20, 169; Joyner, Magellan, pp. 214–15.
32. ‘Genoese Pilot’s Account’, in Pigafetta, First Voyage round the World, pp. 26–9; Morison, Great Explorers, pp. 660–62; Camino, Exploring the Explorers, p. 27.
33. Letter of Elcano to Charles V, 6 September 1522, in Mitchell, Elcano, pp. 87–9; Pigafetta, Magellan’s Voyage, vol. 1, pp. 146–7; Morison, Great Explorers, pp. 664–8.
34. Letter of Charles V, 31 October 1522, cited in Mitchell, Elcano, p. 106.
35. Mitchell, Elcano, p. 105.
36. Silverberg, Longest Voyage, pp. 229–30.
37. Mitchell, Elcano, p. 115.
38. A. Giráldez, The Age of Trade: the Manila Galleons and the Dawn of the Global Economy (Lanham, 2015), p. 49.
39. Ibid., pp. 49–50; D. Brand, ‘Geographical Exploration by the Spaniards’, in D. Flynn, A. Giráldez and J. Sobredo, eds., The Pacific World: Lands, Peoples and History of the Pacific, vol. 4: European Entry into the Pacific (Aldershot, 2001), p. 17 (original edition: H. Friis, ed., The Pacific Basin: a History of Its Geographical Exploration (New York, 1967), p. 121); Camino, Exploring the Explorers, pp. 28–9; M. Mitchell, Friar Andrés de Urdaneta, O.S.A. (London, 1964).
40. H. Kelsey, Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo (2nd edn, San Marino, Calif., 1998), pp. 65–78; An Account of the Voyage of Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo (San Diego, 1999), pp. 18–19.
41. Brand, ‘Geographical Exploration’, p. 25 (original edition: p. 129); Account of the Voyage of Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, pp. 23, 29, 32; Kelsey, Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, pp. 125–6; N. Lemke, Cabrillo: First European Explorer of the California Coast (San Luis Obispo, 1991); L. Gamble, The Chumash World at European Contact: Power, Trade, and Feasting among Complex Hunter-Gatherers (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 2008), pp. 38–9.
32. A New Atlantic
1. D. Abulafia, The Discovery of Mankind: Atlantic Encounters in the Age of Columbus (New Haven, 2008), pp. 201–12; P. Chaunu, Séville et l’Amérique aux XVIe et XVIIe siècles (Paris, 1977), pp. 80–86.
2. ‘ADN dominicano: 49 per cent de origen africano’, in the Dominican newspaper Diario Libre, 6 July 2016, p. 4, reporting research under the auspices of the Academia Dominicana de la Historia.
3. R. Pike, ‘Sevillian Society in the Sixteenth Century: Slaves and Freedmen’, Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 47 (1967), pp. 344–59, partly reprinted as ‘Slavery in Seville at the Time of Columbus’, in H. B. Johnson, ed., From Reconquest to Empire: the Iberian Background to Latin American History (New York, 1970), pp. 85–101.
4. M. L. Stig Sørensen, C. Evans and K. Richter, ‘A Place of History: Archaeology and Heritage at Cidade Velha, Cape Verde’, in P. Lane and K. McDonald, eds., Slavery in Africa: Archaeology and Memory (Proceedings of the British Academy, vol. 168, 2011), pp. 422–5; A. Carreira, Cabo Verde: Formação e Extinção de uma Sociaedade escarvorata (1460–1878) (3rd edn, Praia de Santiago, 2000); T. Hall, ed. and transl., Before Middle Passage: Translated Portuguese Manuscripts of Atlantic Slave Trading From West Africa to Iberian Territories, 1513–26 (Farnham, 2015).
5. K. Deagan and J. M. Cruxent, Archaeology at La Isabela: America’s First European Town (New Haven, 2002); K. Deagan and J. M. Cruxent, Columbus’s Outpost among the Taínos: Spain and America at La Isabela, 1493–1498 (New Haven, 2002); V. Flores Sasso and E. Prieto Vicioso, ‘Aportes a la historia de La Isabela: Primera ciudad europea en el Nuevo Mundo’, Centro de Altos Estudios Humanísticos y del Idioma Español adscrito a la Universidad Nacional Pedro Henríquez Ureña, Anuario, vol. 6 (2012–13), pp. 411–35.
6. Deagan and Cruxent, Columbus’s Outpost, pp. 53, 57, 96–7, 180–81; Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, pp. 202–3.
7. Deagan and Cruxent, Columbus’s Outpost, pp. 146, 191–2.
8. Ibid., pp. 194–8.
9. T. Floyd, The Columbus Dynasty in the Caribbean 1492–1526 (Albuquerque, 1973), p. 55.
10. E. Mira Caballos, La gran armada colonizadora de Nicolás de Ovando, 1501–1502 (Santo Domingo, 2014); E. Pérez Montás, E. Prieto Vicioso and J. Chez Checo, eds., Basílica catedral de Santo Domingo (Santo Domingo, 2011).
11. Chaunu, Séville et l’Amérique, pp. 87–8.
12. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, p. 156.
13. R. Pike, Enterprise and Adventure: the Genoese
in Seville and the Opening of the New World (Ithaca, NY, 1966), pp. 52–9; Floyd, Columbus Dynasty, pp. 67–8.
14. G. Rodríguez Morel, ‘The Sugar Economy of Española in the Sixteenth Century’, in S. Schwartz, ed., Tropical Babylons: Sugar and the Making of the Atlantic World, 1450–1680 (Chapel Hill, 2004), pp. 85–6; Pike, Enterprise and Adventure, pp. 128–33.
15. M. Ratekin, ‘The Early Sugar Industry in Española’, Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 34 (1954), pp. 3–7.
16. Ibid., pp. 6, 9–11; Rodríguez Morel, ‘Sugar Economy of Española’, pp. 90–93, 105–6.
17. Ratekin, ‘Early Sugar Industry’, p. 13; Rodríguez Morel, ‘Sugar Economy of Española’, pp. 103–4; Chaunu, Séville et l’Amérique, pp. 88–9.
18. J. Friede, Los Welser en la conquista de Venezuela (Caracas and Madrid, 1961), p. 91.
19. Friede, Los Welser, pp. 91, 580 n. 16.
20. J. Denzer, ‘Die Welser in Venezuela – das Scheiten ihrer wirtschaftlichen Ziele’, in M. Häberlein and J. Burkhardt, Die Welser: neue Forschungen zur Geschichte und Kultur des oberdeutschen Handelshauses (Berlin, 2002), pp. 290, 308, 313.
21. J. del Rio Moreno, Los Inicios de la Agricultura europea en el Nuevo Mundo, 1492–1542 (2nd edn, Santo Domingo, 2012); J. del Rio Moreno, Ganadería, plantaciones y comercio azucarero antillano: siglos XVI y XVII (Santo Domingo, 2012); Pike, Enterprise and Adventure, p. 133.
22. Chaunu, Séville et l’Amérique, pp. 90–91.
23. Excellent maps displaying the volume of trade in Chaunu, Séville et l’Amérique, pp. 301–9.
24. Cited by A. de la Fuente, Havana and the Atlantic in the Sixteenth Century (Chapel Hill, 2008), pp. 67–8.
25. Chaunu, Séville et l’Amérique, p. 100.
26. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, pp. 209–302; H. Thomas, Rivers of Gold: the Rise of the Spanish Empire (London, 2003), p. 282; A. de la Fuente, ‘Sugar and Slavery’, S. Schwartz, ed., in Tropical Babylons: Sugar and the Making of the Atlantic World, 1450–1680 (Chapel Hill, 2004), pp. 117–19.
27. Chaunu, Séville et l’Amérique, p. 99.
28. De la Fuente, Havana, pp. 1–5; J. S. Dean, Tropics Bound: Elizabeth’s Seadogs on the Spanish Main (Stroud, 2010).
29. Table 2:2, showing imports and exports, 1587–1610, in de la Fuente, Havana, p. 15; Canary wine: ibid., pp. 22, 90–92; Chinese goods: ibid., pp. 44–5; shipbuilding: ibid., pp. 127–34.
30. Ibid., pp. 94, 96, 98, 159, 186, 200, 223–4; Chaunu, Séville et l’Amérique, p. 102.
31. D. Wheat, Atlantic Africa and the Spanish Caribbean, 1570–1640 (Chapel Hill and Williamsburg, Va., 2016), pp. 29, 64, 77, 84, 121–3, 209–15.
33. The Struggle for the Indian Ocean
1. P. Brummett, Ottoman Seapower and Levantine Diplomacy in the Age of Discovery (Albany, NY, 1994); S. Özbaran, Ottoman Expansion toward the Indian Ocean in the 16th Century (Istanbul, 2009); G. Casale, The Ottoman Age of Exploration (New York, 2010).
2. Brummett, Ottoman Seapower, pp. 32–3, 41, 143–70; K. Fleet, European and Islamic Trade in the Early Ottoman State: the Merchants of Genoa and Turkey (Cambridge, 1999).
3. Brummett, Ottoman Seapower, p. 34; K. N. Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean: an Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750 (Cambridge, 1985), p. 67.
4. Z. Biedermann, Soqotra: Geschichte einer christlichen Insel im Indischen Ozean bis zur frühen Neuzeit (Wiesbaden, 2006), pp. 68–76.
5. Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilisation, p. 69.
6. Özbaran, Ottoman Expansion, pp. 9, 40–41; W. Floor, The Persian Gulf: a Political and Economic History of Five Port Cities (Washington DC, 2006), pp. 7–24, 30–49, 89–106.
7. Cited in C. R. Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire 1415–1825 (London, 1991), p. 62; Floor, Persian Gulf, pp. 15–16.
8. Floor, Persian Gulf, pp. 91–3; Manuel I of Portugal, Gesta proxime per Portugalenses in India Ethiopia et alijs Orientalibus Terris (1507; exemplar in John Carter Brown Library, Brown University).
9. Brummett, Ottoman Seapower, pp. 45, 167; see also Epistola Potentissimi Emanuelis Regis Portugalie et Algarbiorum etc. de Victorijs habitis in India et Malacha ad sancto in Christo Patrem et Dominum nostrum dominum Leonem decimum Pontificem maximum (1513; exemplar in John Carter Brown Library, Brown University).
10. Floor, Persian Gulf, pp. 101–6.
11. Özbaran, Ottoman Expansion, pp. 53–4, 57.
12. Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilisation, pp. 69, 71.
13. Brummett, Ottoman Seapower, pp. 34–5, 42; R. Crowley, Conquerors: How Portugal Seized the Indian Ocean and Forged the First Global Empire (London, 2015), pp. 202–41.
14. Brummett, Ottoman Seapower, pp. 42–3.
15. Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, p. 33; Özbaran, Ottoman Expansion, pp. 47, 51–2, 70.
16. ‘A letter from Dom Aleixo de Meneses to King Manuel I; the Portuguese expedition to Jiddah in the Red Sea in 1527’, in Özbaran, Ottoman Expansion, app. 1, pp. 325–9.
17. Özbaran, Ottoman Expansion, pp. 49–50.
18. Ibid., p. 51.
19. Brummett, Ottoman Seapower, pp. 44–5; Crowley, Conquerors, pp. 324–38, citing quotation on p. 337.
20. Özbaran, Ottoman Expansion, p. 61, engaging with F. Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II (2 vols., London, 1972–3), vol. 1, p. 389; S. Özbaran, The Ottoman Response to European Expansion: Studies on Ottoman–Portuguese Relations in the Indian Ocean and Ottoman Administration in the Arab Lands during the Sixteenth Century (Istanbul, 1994), pp. 89–97.
21. Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, pp. 25–6, 31.
22. Özbaran, Ottoman Expansion, p. 9.
23. Crowley, Conquerors, pp. 203–4, 227–39; Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, pp. 26–7.
24. Letter cited by Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, p. 28.
25. Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, pp. 29, 31.
26. David Abulafia, The Great Sea: a Human History of the Mediterranean (London, 2011), pp. 418–23.
27. Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, pp. 40–41.
28. ‘The report of Selman Reis written in 1525: the Ottoman guns and ships at the port of Jiddah, the description of the Red Sea and adjacent countries together with the Portuguese presence in the Indian Ocean’, in Özbaran, Ottoman Expansion, app. 2, pp. 334–5; cited in Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, p. 43; Özbaran, Ottoman Response, pp. 99–109.
29. P. Risso, Merchants and Faith: Muslim Commerce and Culture in the Indian Ocean (Boulder, 1995), p. 58.
30. Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, pp. 41–7, 49; Özbaran, Ottoman Expansion, p. 8.
31. S. Soucek, Studies in Ottoman Naval History and Maritime Geography (Istanbul, 2008), pp. 79–82.
32. Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, p. 56.
33. Portuguese version of a letter to the Ottoman commander, cited in Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, pp. 57, 218 n. 17.
34. Özbaran, Ottoman Expansion, pp. 83–4; Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, pp. 59–63.
35. Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilisation, pp. 71–3; Özbaran, Ottoman Expansion, pp. 80–84; Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, p. 76.
36. Boxer, Portuguese Seaborne Empire, pp. 61–2.
37. Ibid., pp. 48–9.
38. M. Meilink-Roelofsz, Asian Trade and European Influence in the Indonesian Archipelago between 1500 and about 1630 (The Hague, 1962), pp. 136–72; also L. F. Thomaz, De Ceuta a Timor (Algés, 1994), pp. 291–9, 513–65; also Armando Cortesão, transl. and ed., The Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires (London, 1944), vol. 2, pp. 229–89.
39. Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, pp. 133, 159.
40. ‘Report of Selman Reis’, in Özbaran, Ottoman Expansion, p. 333.
41. S. Soucek, Piri Reis: Turkish Mapmaking after Columbus (2nd edn, Istanbul, 2013); M. Özen, Pirî Reis and His Charts (Istanbul, 2006).
42. Soucek, Piri Reis, pp. 47–63.
43. Ibid., pp. 102–11, 114–25, 128–31.
44. G. Mc
Intosh, The Piri Reis Map of 1513 (Athens, Ga., 2000), pp. 5–7; Özen, Pirî Reis, pp. 3–10; Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, pp. 98–9; Soucek, Studies in Ottoman Naval History, pp. 57–65.
45. Özen, Pirî Reis, pp. 20–22; Soucek, Piri Reis, p. 110.
46. Soucek, Studies in Ottoman Naval History, pp. 35–40, 45, 47.
47. Abulafia, Great Sea, pp. 486–7; Soucek, Piri Reis, p. 78.
48. Soucek, Piri Reis, pp. 30–41.
49. Soucek, Studies in Ottoman Naval History, p. 57; Soucek, Piri Reis, p. 79; McIntosh, Piri Reis Map, pp. 122–40.
50. Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, pp. 38–40, and fig. 2:1, p. 38 – not a map recording Magellan’s route, as Casale supposes.
51. Cf. Soucek, Piri Reis, p. 65.
52. Plates in Özen, Pirî Reis, pp. 69–70; 1528 map: Soucek, Piri Reis, pp. 96–7, 132; McIntosh, Piri Reis Map, pp. 52–68, makes bizarre claims about information handed down from a higher civilization and should be ignored.
53. Soucek, Piri Reis, pp. 68–9.
54. McIntosh, Piri Reis Map, pp. 45–6.
55. Text ibid., pp. 70–71; also in Soucek, Piri Reis, p. 75.
56. Piri Reis, Kitab-i Bahriye [‘Book of Navigation’], cited by Soucek, Studies in Ottoman Naval History, p. 58.
34. The Great Galleons of Manila
1. M. Mitchell, Friar Andrés de Urdaneta, O.S.A. (London, 1964), pp. 75, 77.
2. Cited in Mitchell, Friar Andrés de Urdaneta, pp. 73–4.
3. M. Mitchell, Elcano: the First Circumnavigator (London, 1958), pp. 118, 124, 126–59; R. Silverberg, The Longest Voyage: Circumnavigators in the Age of Discovery (Athens, Oh., 1972), pp. 230–33.
4. R. Canosa, Banchieri genovesi e sovrani spagnoli tra cinquecento e seicento (Rome, 1998), pp. 12–13; R. Carande, Carlos V y sus Banqueros, vol. 3: Los Caminos del Oro y de la Plata (2nd edn, Barcelona, 1987).
5. M. Camino, Exploring the Explorers: Spaniards in Oceania, 1519–1794 (Manchester, 2008), pp. 29–30; Mitchell, Friar Andrés de Urdaneta, p. 78.
6. W. Schurz, The Manila Galleon (New York, 1939), p. 21.
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