by Benny Morris
Verheij, Jelle. “ ‘Les Frères de terre et d’eau’: Sur le rôle des Kurdes dans les massacres arméniens de 1894–1896.” Annales de l’autre Islam 5 (1998): 225–276.
Vryonis, Speros. The Mechanism of Catastrophe: The Turkish Pogroms of September 6–7, 1955, and the Destruction of the Greek Community in Istanbul. Istanbul: Greekworks
. com, 2005.
Walder, David. The Chanak Affair. London: MacMillan, 1969.
Watenpaugh, Keith David. “ ‘Are There Any Children for Sale?’ Genocide and the Transfer of Armenian Children (1915–1922).” Journal of Human Rights 12 no. 3 (2013): 283–295.
Werfel, Franz. The Forty Days of Musa Dagh. 1933. Boston: Verba Mundi, 2012.
Wharton, Alyson. The Architects of Ottoman Constantinople: The Balyan Family and the History of Ottoman Architecture. London: I. B. Tauris, 2015.
Whooley, John. “The Armenian Catholic Church: A Study in History and Ecclesiology.”
Heythrop Journal 45, no. 4 (2004): 416–434.
Winter, Jay. “ Under the Cover of War: Genocide in the Context of Total War.” In Amer i ca and the Armenian Genocide of 1915, ed. Jay Winter, 37–51. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
Zeidner, Robert F. The Tricolor over the Taurus: The French in Cilicia and Vicinity 1918–
1922. Ankara: Atatürk Supreme Council for Culture, Language and History, 2005.
Zürcher, Erik J. “How Eu ro pe ans Adopted Anatolia and Created Turkey.” Eu ro pean Review 13, no. 3 (2005): 379–394.
— — —. “Ottoman Labour Battalions in World War I.” Unpublished manuscript, n.d., http:// www . hist . net / kieser / aghet / Essays / EssayZurcher . html.
— — —. “Renewal and Silence: Postwar Unionist and Kemalist Rhe toric on the Armenian Genocide.” In Suny, Göçek, and Naimark, A Question of Genocide, 306–316.
— — —. Turkey, a Modern History. London: I. B. Tauris, 1993.
— — —. The Young Turk Legacy and Nation Building: From the Ottoman Empire to
Atatürk’s Turkey. London: I. B. Tauris, 2010.
Acknowl edgments
We would like to thank Roni Blushtein- Livnon for her effective map- making,
which has added considerably to the book; David Rees of Munich, for
helping with the translation of German documents; and Rabea Kirmani, of
Georgetown University, for helping us locate some of the photo graphs used
in this book.
We would also like to warmly thank Beni Kedar and Heleen van den Berg
for reading and commenting on sections of this book, and Eli Shaltiel for
reading, commenting, and pushing for translation.
The staffs of the Houghton Library at Harvard University; at the U.S.
National Archives in College Park; UK National Archives in Kew, London;
at the Prime Minister’s Ottoman Archives (Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi)
in Istanbul; at the Archives of the Ministère des Affaires Etrangères, La
Courneuve, Paris; and at the Ser vice Historique de la Défense, Vincennes,
Paris, deserve our deep gratitude for helping find the documentation used
in this study. We also thank the Library of Congress, Washington, DC,
for their assistance and permission to use photo
graphs from their
collections.
We would like to thank Simon Waxman, of Harvard University Press, for
carefully copyediting the manuscript, and Anne McGuire for her Sisyphean
strug gle with our endnotes.
Cheers to Aliza Ouzan- Suissa for assisting with those never- ending admin-
istrative tasks.
And last but not least, our heartfelt thanks go to Georges Borchardt for rep-
resenting us, through thick and thin, and landing us on the welcoming shores
of Harvard University Press.
Acknowl edgments
Benny
I would like to thank Chenia and Yuval Carmel for their friendship, hospi-
tality, and help during my stints of research and writing in Washington.
I would like to thank Professors Bob Lieber and Charles King, of George-
town University, for providing me with the conditions that facilitated writing
the last parts of this book.
I would like to thank Harvard University and Professor Michael Brenner
and the faculty of Ludwig- Maximilians University in Munich for providing
me with the space and time in which to work on the material in this book.
Lastly, I would like to thank my wife, Leah, and my kids, Erel, Yagi, and
Orian, for their support during the years of labor on this book.
Dror
I would like to thank Nimrod Hurvitz, Ehud Toledano, Bedross Der Matos-
sian, and many dear Turkish friends— who will remain unnamed— for their
advice, smart suggestions, and interest in the proj ect.
Lastly, I would like to thank Dana Poless and my kids, David, Lior, and
Omer, for their love, support, and encouragement when the task seemed
insurmountable.
Illustration Credits
Pages
16 “Armenian volunteer soldier, with gun,” [n.d.], glass negative, Bain News Ser vice, George Grantham Bain Collection, Prints and Photo graphs Division, Library of
Congress, LOT 10904, LCCN 2014683946.
23 “Turk and Rus sian, Greek and Jew are represented . . . ,” 1921, photo graph, American National Red Cross Collection, Prints and Photo graphs Division, Library of
Congress, LCCN 2010650581.
34 “Scene of Stamboul Refugees,” Houghton Library, American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions Collection, ABC 76, Ida W. Prime (W. Turkey, 1884–
1911), Photo graph Albums, courtesy of Houghton Library, Harvard University.
49 “The quarrelsome Eu ro pean nursery,” 1897, chromolithograph, Louis Dalrymple, publ. Keppler and Schwarzmann, NY, in Puck 41, no. 1045 (March 17, 1897), center-fold, Prints and Photo graphs Division, Library of Congress, LCCN 2012647655.
129 “Dr. F. W. MacCallum,” between c. 1915 and c. 1920, glass negative, Bain News Ser vice, George Grantham Bain Collection, Prints and Photo graphs Division,
Library of Congress, LCCN 2014706849.
143 “The interior of a Turkish mosque . . . ,” received 1919, glass negative, American National Red Cross Collection, Prints and Photo graphs Division, Library of Congress, LCCN 2017669654.
145 “Adana— Street in Christian Quarter, June ’09,” June 1909, glass negative, Bain News Ser vice, Prints and Photo graphs Division, Library of Congress, LCCN
2014696598.
155 “Henry Morgenthau, Former Ambassador to Turkey,” received 1919, glass negative, American National Red Cross Collection, Prints and Photo graphs Division,
Library of Congress, LCCN 2017669439.
Illustration Credits
165 Zeytun, photo by Dror Ze’evi, July 2016.
179 Kemah Gorge, photo by Dror Ze’evi, July 2016.
184 Source: Wikimedia commons, https:// upload . wikimedia . org / wikipedia / commons
/ 6 / 66 / Waitingformassacref . png; original source: “Waiting for they know not what,”
in Aurora Mardiganian, Ravished Armenia: The Story of Aurora Mardiganian, the
Christian Girl Who Lived through the Great Massacres (New York: Kingfield, 1918), opp. p. 158.
191 “Group photo graph of 11, including Hamlin, Parsons, Riggs, Bliss, Schnauffler, etc.,” Houghton Library, American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions
Collection, ABC 78.2, Picture Collection, box 17, folder 3, courtesy of Houghton
Library, Harvard University.
196 “Syria— Aleppo— Armenian woman kneeling . . . ,” n.d., photographic print by Near East Relief, George Grantham Bain Collection, Prints and Photo graphs Division,
Libra
ry of Congress, LOT 10898, LCCN 2006679122.
207 Source: Wikimedia commons, https:// commons . wikimedia . org / wiki / File:Armenian _ Resistance _ - _ Urfa _ - _ July _ 1915 . png; original source: “The civilian Armenians of Urfa who defended themselves against the Turks and the Kurds in July, 1915,” in G. Pasdermadjian, Why Armenia Should Be Free, trans. Aram Torossian (Boston: Hairenik Publishing Com pany, 1918).
210 “Red Cross,” c. 1915, glass negative, Bain News Ser vice, George Grantham Bain Collection, Prints and Photo graphs Division, Library of Congress, LCCN 2014707367.
233 “Armenian doctors hanged in public at Haleb / Aleppo, 1916,” CPA Media, Pictures from History, Granger Historical Picture Archive, New York, all rights re-
served, image no. 0617526.
235 “23 Armenian orphans in Aleppo collected from Kurds and Turks by Karen Jeppe,”
Archive PL / Alamy Stock Photo, image no. PA2A8W.
239 “The corpses of Armenian citizens massacred by Turkish forces during the Armenian Genocide, c. 1915,” CPA Media, Pictures from History, Granger Historical
Picture Archive, New York, all rights reserved, image no. 0617486.
267 “Types of British Indian troops . . . ,” received 10 August 1920, glass negative, American National Red Cross Collection, Prints and Photo graphs Division, Library of Congress, LCCN 2017677754.
270 “Armenian refugees,” received October 1918, glass negative, American National Red Cross Collection, Prints and Photo graphs Division, Library of Congress,
LCCN 2017669468.
Illustration Credits
287 “This is the del e ga tion of Turks which was sent to Lausanne . . . ,” 1923, photographic print, Frank and Frances Carpenter Collection, Prints and Photo graphs
Division, Library of Congress, LOT 11462, LCCN 90715422.
298 “Refugees waiting for work at Marsavan [i.e. Marsovan],” May 1919, photographic print, American National Red Cross Collection, Prints and Photo graphs Division,
Library of Congress, LCCN 2010650524.
304 “Armenian widows, with children, Turkey,” April or May 1909, glass negative, George Grantham Bain Collection, Prints and Photo graphs Division, Library of
Congress, LCCN 2014683948.
317 “Near East relief— Armenian orphans boarding barges at Constantinople, bound for Greece,” c. 1915, photographic print by Near East Relief, George Grantham Bain Collection, Prints and Photo graphs Division, Library of Congress, LOT 10898,
LCCN 93515692.
330 “The Turks’ bag of game . . . ,” February 1919, photographic print, American National Red Cross Collection, Prints and Photo graphs Division, Library of Congress,
LCCN 2010650511.
363 (top) “Near East relief— Armenian orphans being enloaded in barges from Constantinople, bound for Greece,” between 1915 and 1916, photographic print, George
Grantham Bain Collection, Prints and Photo graphs Division, Library of Congress,
LOT 10898, LCCN 2002717995.
363 (bottom) “Like little French Soldiers,” 1915 or 1916, photographic print by Near East Relief, George Grantham Bain Collection, Prints and Photo graphs Division,
Library of Congress, LOT 10898, LCCN 91786367.
418 “ ‘ There are smiles.’ A typical boy- refugee of Greece, snapped on the streets of Salonica . . . ,” received 24 October 1919, glass negative, American National Red
Cross Collection, Prints and Photo graphs Division, Library of Congress, LCCN
2017670368.
431 “Greek irregular volunteers on the frontier, Thessaly, Greece,” c. 1897, stereograph, Underwood and Underwood, Prints and Photo graphs Division, Library of Congress,
LOT 11678, LCCN 2003681469.
460 “Turkish officials and little ‘sole survivor’ of a village of 350, Candia, Crete,” c. 1897, stereograph, Underwood and Underwood, Prints and Photo graphs Division, Library
of Congress, LOT 11678, LCCN 2003681473.
Index
Page numbers in italics indicate photo graphs, maps, and tables.
Aaronsohn, Aaron, 229
Ali Pasha, Kılıç, 345, 348, 349
Abdarova, Judad, 375–76
Allen, Charles, 215
Abdülaziz, 15–16
Allen, E. T., 376
Abdülgani, 215–16
Allen, Herbert M., 38–39, 45, 60
Abdülhalik Bey, Mustafa, 231–32
Allenby, Edmund, 294, 295, 303, 321, 323, 326
Abdülhamid II: Armenians under rule of, 43;
Allies: Constantinople and, 281, 285, 292, 297,
Christians and, 37, 495; end of absolute rule
342, 454–55; interference with deportations
by, 137; first secretary to, 56; Fitzmaurice on,
by, 388; reparative efforts of, 270; in Turkey,
116; massacre responses by, 70, 90; massacres
266–69. See also Britain; France; Paris Peace
ordered by, 60, 72–73, 82, 106–7, 491; on
Conference; United States; World War I
mass conversions, 120; rebellion responses by,
(WWI)
16–17, 60; sectarianism of, 41–42; Tanzimat
American Red Cross, 466
reforms and, 38, 39; threats to power of, 36
American Tobacco Com pany, 439, 609n442
Abidin Pasha, 48
Amet, Jean, 359
Abu Hamam camp, 241
Amiras, 21, 28
Adana city: Armenian atrocities in, 329–30;
Anatolia: Christian communities of, 18, 20,
battles in and around, 357; emigration from,
23–24, 299; emigration from, 360–73, 363;
360; massacres in, 144, 145, 226; return of
Muslim immigrants to, 33–34, 34. See also
deportees to, 322
Eastern provinces; Western provinces
Adana province: under British control, 294;
Anatolian Greeks: allegations of atrocities by,
declaration of autonomy of, 351–52; deporta-
400–401, 406–7; atrocities committed by,
tions from, 226–30; emigration from, 365;
475–84; exchange agreement and, 467–72;
France and, 352–53, 355–57; refugees in, 362
expulsion of, 456–65; as irregulars for Greek
Aghasse (rebel leader), 93, 98–99
army, 431; notables, executions of, 416–17;
Ahmet Bey, 231–32
Pontic movement and, 381–84; vio lence by,
Aid: for refugees, 466; for returnees, 306–7; for
385
survivors of massacres, 84
Andonian, Aram, 242
Ajami Pasha, 371
André, Pierre, 333
Akçam, Taner, 130, 250, 486
Andreasian, Dikran, 209, 210
Aleppo vilayet: deportees in, 188, 195, 196,
Ankara: deportations from, 221–22; massacres in,
231–36; doctors hanged in, 233; emigration
221–22
from, 364–65; France and, 279–80; guerrilla
Antakya (Antioch), 209, 371
war in, 329; massacre in, 299; recovery effort
Antep: ceasefire in, 351; emigration from, 364,
in, 316; refugees in, 366–67
369–70; French occupation of and battle for,
Alexandretta (Iskenderun), refugees in, 462, 463,
345–48, 349–50, 353–55; massacre in, 92–95
464–65
Anthony, Gertrude, 413
Index
Anti- Armenian campaign of 1919, 328–29, 330
Bergfeld, Heinrich, 184, 185
Arapgir, convoys passing through, 422–23
Berki, Fazil, 186–87
Ararat Society / Young Armenians, 32, 35
Bernau, August, 241
Armenian in de pen dence, call for, 287–88, 289,
Bilemjian, Lütfiyye, 256
&n
bsp; 489. See also Yerevan, Armenian Republic at
Birecik: massacre in, 96–97; mass conversions in,
Armenian National Assembly, 30–31, 39
120–21
Armenian revolutionaries / resistors: in Ankara,
Bismarck, Otto von, 18, 39
221; arrests of alleged, 55–56, 125–26,
Bloxham, Donald, 246–48
166–67, 191–92, 213, 217, 225, 251–52; as
Bolsheviks, 289
blamed for massacres, 44–45, 60–61, 70,
Bonar Law, Andrew, 290
75–76; fear of, 47, 48, 52, 70–71, 114–15,
Boyadjian, Hampartsoun (Hampartsoon
296; massacres by, 329–30, 331–32; in
Boagian), 56, 225
Musadağ, 209–11, 210; Ottoman Bank Affair
Boyajian, Thomas, 64, 90
of, 104–6; prevention of actions by, 248;
Boycott of businesses owned by Greeks, 152–53
recruitment of, 66–67; religious views of, 46;
Brémond, Edouard, 266, 305–6, 344–45, 352,
in Van, 101–4, 160–64; in Zeytun, 98–101,
354, 356, 362
165–67
Briand, Aristide, 280
Armistice, violations of, 297, 297
Brigand bands, Muslim: after WWI, 398–99;
Arslanian, Kevork, 289
Armenian returnees and, 304–5; in British
Assyrians (Syriacs, Chaldeans, Nestorians): in
occupied areas, 295–96, 299; evacuees and,
Ba’quba camp, 310; call for creation of state
370; expulsions and, 461; at Kemah Gorge,
for, 373–74; deportations of, 193, 372–73,
178; Kemal and, 300; members of, 275; in
496; in Istanbul, 373; in Mardin, 201–2, 372;
Smyrna, 434; during World War I, 139
massacres of, 198, 202, 203, 374, 375–79, 380;
Bristol, Mark: on Adana, 357; Armenian
migration of, 379–80; population of, 488;
emigration and, 363–64, 365–66; on Armenian
re sis tance to Ottoman mobilization by, 374–75;
vio lence, 330, 331; on Christian minorities,
in Urfa, 371–72
280, 289–90, 299, 451; commission of inquiry
Atif Bey, 221, 222
chaired by, 432–33; on Constantinople exodus,
Atkinson, Henry, 2
454; deportations and, 416, 448; on expulsion
