by Youru Wang
Needless to say, much of the study of Bodhidharma has been focused on the treatise itself. The text, probably written by Tanlin, summarizes the doctrines taught by Bodhidharma as remembered by the disciples. His doctrines involve two major aspects: to enter into or realize enlightenment through principle (liru) and through practice (xingru). The first aspect teaches a student to experience one’s true nature through meditation and to go beyond written teachings. The second aspect involves four types of practice: to accept suffering as past karma without complaint, to remain unmoved while going through all circumstances, to stop craving, and to follow the dharma and perform the six perfections. Both aspects lead to the final awakening to principle (li), which equals one’s true or pure nature. The text obviously utilizes the teachings of emptiness, non-duality, and Buddha-nature from the Perfection of Wisdom literature, Madhyamika philosophy, and the tathāgatagarbha tradition of Indian Buddhism. Its emphasis on the transformation of the mind and on the correlation between enlightenment and the samsaric world captures well the imagination of later generations of Chan.
EXPEDIENT MEANS
The English translation of the Sanskrit term upāya-kauśalya and its Chinese equivalent, fangbian or shishe. Upāya-kauśalya has also been translated in English as “skillful means” or “skill in means.” It is an extremely important concept in Mahayana and East Asian Buddhist traditions. The concept of expedient means originated in early Mahayana texts such as the Lotus Sūtra. It is said that the Buddha introduced the idea and demonstrated how he skillfully used various expedient means to lure unenlightened people onto the path to liberation. The notion of expedient means reveals the provisional nature of the Buddha’s teachings. Although Mahayana Buddhism uses this notion to legitimize its intended changes to Theravada Buddhist doctrines and considers it to be a practical virtue and stage of bodhisattva, the philosophical meanings underlying this concept and their influence are more profound than that.
The notion of expedient means presupposes that all Buddhas, bodhisattvas, or the dharma teachers’ instructions must adapt themselves to different environments, to different times, locations, and capacities of people. It regards all Buddhist teachings as student- or audience-oriented, and as situational and contextual. As a result, it allows for change and variety in Buddhist teachings. What stands behind such a liberal attitude toward the teachings is the ethical and pragmatic concern that all teachings must aim at effectively and flexibly helping other people to liberate themselves from suffering. It is only for this ethical and pragmatic purpose that all teachings, doctrines, or moral precepts are used as means. Once liberation is attained, there is no use for any teaching. The notion of expedient means thus gives a hand up to the liberal side in its battle against any fundamentalism. All teachings, no matter how great, have no ultimate legitimacy.
Chan Buddhism further develops this Mahayana trend. Despite the fact that many Chan masters use the teaching of emptiness or Buddha-nature, they assert that either emptiness or non-emptiness, Buddha-nature or no-Buddha-nature, are all but expedient means. They call these teachings, including their own, fangbian or shishe at the very moment they are using them, reminding their students to see these teachings as expedient means only. Sometimes they also use the expression yaofang (“medical prescription”) to describe the expedient nature of their various teachings. In practice, Chan Buddhism invents a lot of new teaching devices, such as gong’an (public cases of encounter dialogue), riddles, paradoxes, tautology, unconventional behavior, poetry, and so forth, offering great examples of using expedient means.
F
FA
Chinese translation of the Sanskrit word dharma.
FANGBIAN
One of the Chinese expressions for the Mahayana Buddhist concept of expedient means.
FANGZHANG
This Chinese term refers to the specific buildings or rooms in which an abbot of a Chan temple or monastery would live and conduct activities. In its extended usage, fangzhang also simply designates an abbot.
See also .
FARU (638–689)
A Chan master of the Tang dynasty, Faru was a native of Shangdang (in present-day Shanxi province). His family name was Wang. He first studied with the master Huiming (d.u.) (also called Qingbu Ming) and became a monk at the age of 19. While learning extensively from Buddhist scriptures and treatises, he also traveled to seek the way. Finally, he went to study with Hongreng for 16 years at the Twin Peaks and became his dharma heir. For the ensuing eight or nine years, Faru’s whereabouts are unidentified, but one source reported that he avoided official appointment by moving to Shaolin Temple at Mount Song, despite his increasing influence at the capitals. In 686, Faru started to teach the dharma at Shaolin Temple after failing to turn down the invitation by the master Huiduan (d.u.) of Luoyang and the community of Shaolin Temple. It was reported that Faru recommended Shenxiu to his students for furthering their studies before his death in 689.
The main sources for Faru’s life and teachings are his epitaph (“Tang Zhongyue Shamen Shi Faru Chanshi Xingzhuang”), written shortly after Faru’s death by anonymous disciples, and the Chuan Fabao Ji (Annals of the Transmission of the Dharma Treasure). Faru’s epitaph contains the earliest Chan theory of the six generations of lineal transmission from Bodhidharma, thourgh Huike, Sengcan, Daoxin, and Hongreng, to Faru. This transmission is considered by the text as the transmission of the mind without words. It also mentions the teaching of suddenly entering into the one vehicle, a prototype of the later Chan emphasis on sudden enlightenment. The Chuan Fabao Ji extends the lineal transmission to Shenxiu, but still places Faru before Shenxiu. However, Faru’s prominence soon faded away, and the Lengqie Shizi Ji only lists Faru as a master of local influence. The later Chan history texts did not even include him. No texts have ever told whether Faru had his dharma heir. A few of his disciples can be traced through scattered texts.
FASHUO BU’ER
A much neglected classical Chan notion on the use of language, as found in Huangbo Xiyun’s Wanling Lu. This Chinese term translates as “Buddha-dharma and speaking are non-dualistic.” This notion is in sharp contrast with the more one-sided but orthodox Song dynasty Chan emphasis on the inadequacy of language and the ineffability of Buddha-dharma as promoted by the transmission of the lamp literature. The transmission of the lamp literature canonizes the legend that the Buddha transmits the wordless dharma, simply by holding a flower without speaking, to a smiling and understanding disciple, Mahākāśyapa. This canonized legend and its generalized interpretation establish a privileged hierarchy of silence over speaking and identify the true dharma with the negation of language. Such an oversight contradicts the classical Chan Buddhist, especially Huangbo Xiyun and Hongzhou school’s, perspective of non-duality and their advocacy of the inseparableness between Buddha-dharma and everyday activities. For these Chan masters, everyday activities, including speaking, are necessary conditions and could be skillful means for triggering enlightenment. Furthermore, enlightenment can be verified in all everyday activities, including speaking. There is no impassable gap between Buddha-dharma (or enlightenment) and speaking. The non-duality between Buddha-dharma and speaking, or between silence and speaking, avoids seeing these opposites as isolated, independent, and exclusive of each other, seeing them instead in a dynamic interrelationship, as mutually conditioned, involved, and exchangeable. As a result, Chan masters are able to use language more differently, more creatively, and more effectively rather than simply abandoning language or staying in silence forever. The inadequacy of language is acknowledged by these masters in its relative context as the inadequacy of the conventional, purely cognitive, or descriptive use of language. Silence is regarded as silencing or negation of all dualistic pairs, including silence and speaking themselves.
FATANG
The Chinese word here means “dharma hall.” Dharma hall is a kind of building in Chan monasteries for major assembly; for Chan masters’ sermons, including ensuing question and answer se
ssions; and for performances of Chan rituals such as ordaining novices and sūtra chanting prayers. In the Chanmen Guishi (“Rules for the Chan School”)—a document that appeared in the Jingde Chuandeng Lu as the outline of the alleged Baizhang Qinggui—dharma hall is opposed to the traditional Buddha hall (fodian). Whereas in a Buddha hall a Buddha statue is enshrined for reverence and ritual services, dharma hall altars bear only high lecture seats used by abbots for preaching dharma. The Chanmen Guishi and other Chan texts stated that Baizhang Huaihai started one of the new rules for Chan monasteries that established only dharma hall instead of Buddha hall, to emphasize the direct transmission of the dharma from Chan masters’ minds that represent all Buddhas and patriarchs to the students’ minds. This direct transmission went beyond all appearances, icons, and language. “Establishing dharma hall only” is thus regarded by the Chan tradition as revolutionary, as one of the features that mark the independence of Chan monasteries from the other Buddhist schools. Recent scholarship in Chan has challenged this long-standing view and has found that the establishment of dharma hall can be traced even back to the Indian Vinaya tradition. Despite a few extreme cases of dismantling the Buddha hall shrine, Buddha shrines were never abandoned in Chan monasteries. Buddha halls continued to be built in the central location along with dharma hall in Chan monasteries.
FAYAN SCHOOL (Ch. Fayan zong)
Of the five houses of the Southern school of Chan, the Fayan school was the last to emerge during the Five Dynasties. It was named after its founder, Fayan Wenyi. The teaching and practice of this school shares many similarities with the other four houses, such as “directly pointing to the human mind,” “seeing into one’s self-nature and becoming Buddha,” enlightenment not being sought outside everyday activities, and skillful adaptation to the different circumstances of students. What makes this school unique is its more prominent integration of the Huayan philosophy of the harmonious coexistence and non-duality of principle/events (li/shi) into its own teaching of Chan. The philosophy of harmony even facilitated the school’s good relationship with the local authorities, including the school’s influence on and receiving support from the emperors of the Southern Tang and the Wuyue. As far as the style of teaching is concerned, Fayan Wenyi is not famous for shouting at his students or hitting them with his staff, but he is exemplary in using paradox and tautology, responding to his students with the power of insight and challenge.
Among Wenyi’s 63 direct dharma heirs, Tiantai Deshao is the most outstanding. He was invited to the capital by the emperor of the Wuyue and respected as the National Teacher. He also had about 49 dharma heirs of his own. Among them, Yongming Yanshou is best known, due to his 100-fascicle, monumental work Zongjing Lu (Records of the Source-Mirror), which promotes the unification between Chan and other schools of theoretical teachings (Chanjioa yizhi). Yanshou was also the precursor for the syncreticism of Chan and Pure Land. Another disciple of Deshao was Yong’an Daoyuan (d.u.), the compiler of the 30-fascicle Jingde Chuandeng Lu. The teaching of the Fayan school even spread to Korea. Although this school was quite prosperous in the early Song, its lineage stopped in the mid-Song.
FAYAN WENYI (885–958)
A Chan master of the Five Dynasties and the founder of the Fayan school, Wenyi was born in Zhejiang. His family name was Lu. He started his monastic life at the age of 7 and was officially ordained at age 20 at Kaiyuan Temple in Yuezhou. He studied Buddhist precepts with Xijue (864–948), a Vinaya master, at Yuwang Temple, and excelled in the Buddhist scriptures and Confucian classics. He was very soon attracted to Chan. On his pilgrimage, he first studied with Changqing Huileng (854–932), a disciple of Xuefeng Yichun. Later, he met Luohan Guichen (869–928), another disciple of Xuefeng Yichun. With Guichen, Wenyi attained enlightenment and became his dharma heir. After a period of wandering, he was invited to preside at Chongshou Temple in Fuzhou, Jiangxi. Due to his growing fame, Emperor Lijing (r. 943–961) of the Southern Tang invited him to the capital, Jinling, to be abbot at Baoen Monastery and later at Qingliang Monastery. Wenyi had more than 1,000 students there, including monks from Korea. When he died at the age of 74, Lijing granted him the title “Great Chan Master of Dharma Eye” (Dafayan Chanshi).
Wenyi had more than 60 direct dharma heirs from his students. Among them, Tiantai Deshao was the most eminent, even becoming respected by the emperor of the Wuyue as the National Teacher. Deshao himself had about 49 dharma heirs. Among them, Yongming Yanshou is most famous for authoring the 100-fascicle, monumental work Zongjing Lu (Records of the Source-Mirror). Another disciple of Deshao was Yong’an Daoyuan (d.u.), the compiler of the 30-fascicle Jingde Chuandeng Lu. As Daoyuan was from the Fayan school, three fascicles of the Jingde Chuandeng Lu included a considerable amount of information and recorded sayings on Fayan Wenyi and his disciples. Compared to the masters of other Chan schools, Wenyi integrated the Huayan doctrine of the harmonious relationship between principle (li) and events (shi) into the teachings of Chan more prominently. His renowned use of tautological answers to his students’ questions is one of the examples of how he skillfully invented unconventional expedient means to help students realize the harmonious, and non-dualistic, relationship of all things in the universe without being hindered by any conceptual words. Placed among the best of all Chan teachers, Wenyi even won high praise from the great neo-Confucian philosopher Zhu Xi (1130–1200).
There are many recorded sayings of Wenyi. Recorded Sayings of the Chan Master Wenyi from Qingliang Monastery in Jinling (Jinling Qingliang Yuan Wenyi Chanshi Yulu), compiled by Yufeng Yuanxin (1571–1647) and Guo Ningzhi (d.u.), and included in the Wujia Yulu (Recorded Sayings of Five Houses) in the Ming dynasty, is the most extensive record of Wenyi’s yulu. It is a collection of Wenyi’s sayings from all previously published records, including the Jingde Chuandeng Lu, the Chanlin Sengbao Zhuan, the Liandeng Huiyao, and the Wudeng Huiyuan. Moreover, an important work, Zongmen Shigui Lun (Treatise on the Ten Regulations of the [Chan] School), is attributed to Fayan Wenyi. It focuses on the criticism of various perverse conduct in the competition among different Chan lineages with each other, even though the formation of different lineages is not seen as completely negative. The text is usually regarded as the earliest source for differentiating the teaching styles and methods of the other four schools and for acknowledging the “five houses” of Chan.
FAYAN ZONG
See .
FEIYIN TONGRONG (1593–1661)
A Chan master of the Linji school in the end of the Ming dynasty and the beginning of the Qing dynasty, Tongrong was born into a family of He in Fuqing (present-day Fujian province). He became a monk at the age of 14. During a period of about 10 years, he studied, respectively, with the Caodong masters Zhanran Yuancheng, Wuming Huijing, and Wuyi Yuanlai. However, he was still interested in the teaching and method of the Linji school. Eventually, he went to study with the Linji master Miyun Yuanwu and became his dharma heir. In 1633, Tongrong took up residence at Wanfu Temple on Mount Huangbo. In the ensuing years, he served as abbot at many Chan temples or monasteries, including Tianning Temple in Zhejiang, Fuyan Temple in Jiangsu, and Xingsheng Wanshou Temple on Mount Jing. He authored several books, including the Zuting Qianchui Lu and the Wuden Yantong. The latter was very controversial regarding the history of Chan lineal transmission and was condemned by local government after a lawsuit. His teachings were preserved in the Feiyin Chanshi Yulu of 14 fascicles. He had 64 certified dharma heirs. Because his dharma heir Yinyuan Longqi went to Japan and became the founder of the Japanese Obaku school, Tongrong was also revered by the followers of this Japanese Zen school.
FENGXUE YANZHAO (896–973)
A Chan master of the Linji school in the late Tang dynasty, Five Dynasties, and early Song dynasty, Yanzhao was a native of Zhejiang Province. His original name was Kuangzhao. His family name was Liu. Although he was extensively learned, he was not interested in passing the civil examination and instead became a monk. After studying the Lotus Sutra and the Tiantai meditatio
n and consulting the Chan master Jingqing Daofu (868–937), a disciple of Xuefeng Yicun, Yanzhao went to Baoying Temple in Ruzhou to study with Nanyuan Huiyong (860–930), the disciple of Xinghua Cunjiang of the Linjin school. In six years, Yanzhao became the sole dharma heir of Huiyong; he subsequently practiced alone at the abandoned Fengxue Temple on Mount Qianfeng. Over about seven years, he and his followers renovated and enlarged this temple. In 951, under local patronage, he moved to Guanghui Temple. He lived there for 22 years and died at the age of 78. Among his many disciples, the most famous is Shoushan Shengnian. Among his teachings, his subversion of the absolute distinction of questioning and answering to inspire students is noteworthy.
FENYANG SHANZHAO (947–1024)
A Chan master of the Linji school in the Song dynasty, Shanzhao was a native of Taiyuan (in present-day Shanxi). His family name was Yu. At the age of 14, he lost his parents and became a monk. He traveled to many places; it was said that he visited 71 Chan masters. Among the different styles and methods of Chan, the Caogdong school’s expedient of “five ranks” was his favorite. He went to Shimen Temple in Xiangzhou, Hubei, to study with the Caodong master Huiche (d.u.). Shanzhao’s Poem on the Five Ranks won Huiche’s praise, but Shanzhao was still not satisfied. He eventually turned to study with the Linji Chan master Shoushan Shengnian and became Shengnian’s dharma heir. After leaving his teacher, Shanzhao continued to travel in the south. He finally accepted an invitation to take up residence at Taizi Chan Monastery in Fenzhou (later called Fenyang, in present-day Shanxi). He taught there for about 30 years, until his death. His preaching won support from local officials and attracted many followers. Among his disciples, the most famous was Shishuang Chuyuan, who successfully spread the Linji school to the south.
