22. Barbara Wild and her colleagues: B. Wild, M. Erb, and M. Bartels, “Are Emotions Contagious? Evoked Emotions While Viewing Emotionally Expressive Faces: Quality, Quantity, Time Course and Gender Differences,” Psychiatry Research, 102: 109–24 (2001).
23. the most accurately communicated of the emotions: H. L. Wagner, C. J. MacDonald, and A.S.R. Manstead, “Communication of Individual Emotions by Spontaneous Facial Expressions,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50: 737–43 (1986).
24. Negative emotions, although less accurately transmitted: E. S. Sullins, “Emotional Contagion Revisited: Effects of Social Comparisons and Expressive Style on Mood Convergence,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17: 166–74 (1991).
25. many types of negative stimuli: F. Pratto, “Automatic Vigilance: The Attention-Grabbing Power of Negative Social Information,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61: 380–91 (1991); J.M.G. Williams, A. Matthews, and C. MacLeod, “The Emotional Stroop Task and Psychopathology,” Psychological Bulletin, 120: 3–24 (1996); D. Wentura, K. Rothermund, and P. Bak, “Automatic Vigilance: The Attention-Grabbing Power of Approach- and Avoidance-Related Social Information,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78: 1024–37 (2000); A. Dijksterhuis and H. Aarts, “On Wildebeests and Humans: The Preferential Detection of Negative Stimuli,” Psychological Science, 14: 14–18 (2003).
26. Mice, for example: M. Luo, M. S. Fee, and L. C. Katz, “Encoding Pheromonal Signals in the Accessory Olfactory Bulb of Behaving Mice,” Science, 299: 1196–1201 (2003).
27. Young male Asian elephants: L.E.L. Rasmussen, H. S. Riddle, and V. Krishnamurthy, “Mellifluous Matures to Malodorous in Musth,” Nature, 415: 975–76 (2002).
28. “gather sweetness from the temples”: ibid., p. 975.
29. Emotional Contagion Scale: Elaine Hatfield, John Cacioppo, and Richard Rapson, Emotional Contagion (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
30. Gender is also a factor: J. M. Haviland and C. Z. Malatesta, “The Development of Sex Differences in Nonverbal Signals: Fallacies, Facts, and Fantasies,” in Gender and Nonverbal Behavior, ed. C. Mayo and N. M. Henley (New York: Springer Verlag, 1981), pp. 183–208.
31. women were far more susceptible: Hatfield et al., Emotional Contagion.
32. people who are themselves happy: J. A. Easterbrook, “The Effect of Emotion on Cue-Utilization and the Organization of Behavior,” Psychological Review, 66: 183–201 (1959); C. K. Hsee, E. Hatfield, and C. Chemtob, “Assessment of the Emotional States of Others: Conscious Judgments versus Emotional Contagion,” Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 11: 119–28 (1991); K. Otley and J. M. Jenkins, “Human Emotions: Function and Dysfunction,” Annual Review of Psychology, 43: 55–85 (1992); C. Sedikides, “Mood as a Determinant of Attentional Focus,” Cognition and Emotion, 6: 129–48 (1992).
33. Depressed individuals: H. Berenbaum and T. F. Ottmanns, “Emotional Experience and Expression in Schizophrenia and Depression,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101: 37–44 (1992); B. E. Wexler, L. Levenson, S. Warrenburg, and L. H. Price, “Decreased Perceptual Sensitivity to Emotion-Evoking Stimuli in Depression,” Psychiatry Research, 51: 127–58 (1994); D. M. Sloan, M. E. Strauss, S. W. Quirk, and M. Sajatovic, “Subjective and Expressive Emotional Responses in Depression,” Journal of Affective Disorders, 46: 135–41 (1997); N. B. Allen, J. Trinder, and C. Brennen, “Affective Startle Modulation in Clinical Depression: Preliminary Findings,” Biological Psychiatry, 46:542–50 (1999); J. B. Henriques and R. J. Davidson, “Decreased Responsiveness to Reward in Depression,” Cognition and Emotion, 14:711–24 (2000); D. M. Sloan, M. E. Strauss, and K. L. Wisner, “Diminished Response to Pleasant Stimuli by Depressed Women,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110: 488–93 (2001); J. Rottenberg, K. L. Kasch, J. J. Gross, and I. H. Gotlib, “Sadness and Amusement Reactivity Differentially Predict Concurrent and Prospective Functioning in Major Depressive Disorder,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111: 302–12 (2002); L. K. Murray, T. J. Wheeldon, I. C. Reid, D. A. Rowland, D. M. Burt, and D. I. Perrett, “Depression and Facial Expression Sensitivity: Exploratory Studies: Facial Expression Sensitivity in Depression,” submitted for publication.
34. Nine-month-old infants: N. T. Termine and C. E. Izard, “Infants’ Responses to Their Mothers’ Expressions of Joy and Sadness,” Developmental Psychology, 24: 223–29 (1988).
35. One-year-olds: D. L. Mumme and A. Fernald, “The Infant as Onlooker: Learning from Emotional Reactions Observed in a Television Scenario,” Child Development, 74: 221–37 (2003).
36. Adults, too, when interacting: J. K. Hietanen, V. Surakka, and I. Linnankoski, “Facial Electromyographic Response to Vocal Affect Expressions,” Psychophysiology, 35: 530–36 (1998); V. Surakka and J. K. Hietanen, “Facial and Emotional Reactions to Duchenne and Non-Duchenne Smiles,” International Journal of Psychophysiology, 29: 23–33 (1998).
37. Darwin believed that laughter: Charles Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, 3d ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 195; first edition published in 1872.
38. Chimpanzees and pygmy chimpanzees: M. J. Owren and J. Bachorowski, “The Evolution of Emotional Expression: A ‘Selfish-Gene’ Account of Smiling and Laughter in Early Hominids and Humans,” in Emotions: Current Issues and Future Directions, ed. M. T. Mayne and G. A. Bonanno (New York: Guilford, 2001), pp. 152–91; J.A.R.A.M. van Hooff and S. Preuschoft, “Laughter and Smiling: The Intertwining of Nature and Culture,” in Animal Social Complexity: Intelligence, Culture, and Individualized Societies, ed. F.B.M. de Waal and P. L. Tyack (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2003), pp. 260–87.
39. Tickling, according to Roger Fouts: Roger Fouts, with Stephen Tukel Mills, Next of Kin: What Chimpanzees Have Taught Me About Who We Are (New York: William Morrow, 1997).
40. smiling and laughter had very different origins: van Hooff and Preuschoft, “Laughter and Smiling.”
41. “learnt of friends”: Rupert Brooke, “The Soldier,” in 1914 & Other Poems (London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1919), p. 15.
42. “From quiet homes”: Hilaire Belloc, “Dedicatory Ode,” in Complete Verse (London: Duckworth, 1970), p. 60.
43. Epidemics of contagious laughter: Robert R. Provine, Laughter: A Scientific Investigation (New York: Viking, 2000), pp. 129–33.
44. “this plague of laughter”: ibid., pp. 130–31; A. M. Rankin and P. J. Philip, “An Epidemic of Laughing in the Bukoba District of Tanganyika,” Central African Journal of Medicine, 9: 167–70 (1963); G. J. Ebrahim, “Mass Hysteria in School Children: Notes on Three Outbreaks in East Africa,” Clinical Pediatrics, 7: 437–38 (1968).
45. Women laugh more often: Provine, Laughter, pp. 27–29.
46. chimpanzees and college students: R. R. Provine and K. R. Fischer, “Laughing, Smiling, and Talking: Relation to Sleeping and Social Context in Humans,” Ethology, 83: 295–305 (1989); van Hooff and Preuschoft, “Laughterand Smiling.”
47. students were thirty times more likely to laugh: Provine and Fischer, “Laughing, Smiling, and Talking.”
48. “Niagara of laughter”: quoted in Provine, Laughter, p. 136.
49. The long-term physical benefits: R. Holden, Laughter: The Best Medicine (New York: HarperCollins, 1993); P. Martin, The Sickening Brain: Brain, Behavior, Immunity and Disease (New York: HarperCollins, 1997); R. A. Martin, “Humor, Laughter, and Physical Health: Methodological Issues and Research Findings,” Psychological Bulletin, 127: 504–19 (2001); R. A. Martin, “Is Laughter the Best Medicine? Humor, Laughter, and Physical Health,” Psychological Science, 11: 216–20 (2002).
50. extraverts laugh more often: W. Ruch, “Exhilaration and Humor,” in Handbook of Emotions, ed. M. Lewis and J. M. Haviland (New York: Guilford, 1993), pp. 605–16.
51. Rats that chirp: B. Knutson, J. Burgdorf, and J. Panksepp, “Anticipation of Play Elicits High-Frequency Ultrasonic Vocalizations in Young Rats,” Journal of Comparative Psychology, 112: 1–9 (1998); J. Panksepp and J. Burgdorf
, “Laughing Rats? Playful Tickling Arouses 50KHz Ultrasonic Chirping in Rats,” Society for Neuroscience Abstracts, 24: 691 (1998); J. Panksepp and J. Burgdorf, “Laughing Rats? Playful Tickling Arouses High-Frequency Ultrasonic Chirping in Young Rodents,” in Toward a Science of Consciousness III, ed. S. Hameroff, D. Chalmers, and A. Kazniak (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1999), pp. 231–44.
52. Brain scans taken: V. Goel and R. Dolan, “The Functional Anatomy of Humor: Segregating Cognitive and Affective Components,” Nature Neuroscience, 4: 237–38 (2001).
53. The funnier the joke: ibid.
54. Scientists believe that the reward: ibid.
55. “Cold Cape Cod clams”: Cole Porter, “Let’s Do It, Let’s Fall in Love,” from Paris, first performed in 1928; Warner Brothers Publications, Miami, Fla.
56. “Hot blood begets hot thoughts”: William Shakespeare, Troilus and Cressida, Act III, scene 1, lines 126–27. He wrote as well that “affection is a coal that must be cooled, / Else, suffered, it will set the heart on fire. / The sea hath bounds, but deep desire hath none” (Venus and Adonis, lines 387–89).
57. “Yea, to such rashness”: Thomas Hardy, “Lines, To a Movement in Mozart’s E-Flat Symphony,” in The Complete Poems of Thomas Hardy, ed. James Gibson (London: Macmillan, 1976), p. 459.
58. “The simple accident”: Robert Louis Stevenson, “On Falling in Love,” in The Lantern Bearers and Other Essays, ed. J. Treglown (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1988), p. 45; essay first published in 1876.
59. “sets the whole world to a new tune”: William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience (1902; New York: Penguin, 1982), p. 150.
60. Love had been his tutor: W. S. Gilbert and Arthur Sullivan, H.M.S. Pinafore, in The Complete Annotated Gilbert and Sullivan (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), Act I, p. 125; first performed in 1878.
61. This marriage of affinity and joy: T. R. Insel, J. T. Winslow, Z.-X. Wang, L. Young, and T. J. Hulihan, “Oxytocin and the Molecular Basis of Monogamy,” Advances in Experimental Medical Biology, 395: 227–34 (1996); T. R. Insel and Larry J. Young, “The Neurobiology of Attachment,” Nature Reviews: Neuroscience, 2: i-8 (2001); T. R. Insel, “Is Attachment an Addictive Disorder?” Physiology and Behavior, 79: 351–57 (2003).
62. When a chemical that blocks oxytocin receptors: J. R. Williams, T. R. Insel, C. R. Harbaugh, and C. S. Carter, “Oxytocin Administered Centrally Facilitates Formation of a Partner Preference in Female Prairie Voles (Microtus ochrogaster),” Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 6: 247–50 (1994); T. R. Insel and T. J. Hulihan, “A Gender-Specific Mechanism for Pair Bonding: Oxytocin and Partner Preference Formation in Monogamous Voles,” Behavioral Neuroscience, 109: 782–89 (1995).
63. mammal species that are not monogamous: D. G. Kleiman, “Monogamy in Mammals,” Quarterly Review of Biology, 52: 39–69 (1977).
64. Examination of the montane vole’s brain: T. R. Insel and L. E. Shapiro, “Oxytocin Receptor Distribution Reflects Social Organization in Monogamous and Polygamous Voles,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 89: 5981–85 (1992).
65. brain activation patterns: H. Breiter, R. L. Golub, R. M. Weisskoff, D. N. Kennedy, N. Makris, J. D. Berke, J. M. Goodman, H. L. Kantor, D. R. Gastfriend, J. P. Riorden, R. T. Mathew, B. R. Rosen, and S. E. Hyman, “Acute Effects of Cocaine on Human Brain Activity and Emotion,” Neuron, 19: 591–611 (1997).
66. “Passions are the only orators”: François de La Rochefoucauld, Maxims, trans. Stuart D. Warner and Stéphane Douard (South Bend, Ind.: St. Augustine’s Press, 2001), p. 4.
67. repeated bouts of depression: Churchill’s physician, Lord Moran, wrote extensively about Churchill’s depressions and noted, as Churchill had, that melancholy permeated the Marlborough line. Churchill’s depression lasted at times for only hours and at other times for months. Lord Moran, Churchill: Taken from the Diaries of Lord Moran. The Struggle for Survival 1940–1965 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1966).
68. “conspicuously shared”: Isaiah Berlin, The Proper Study of Mankind: An Anthology of Essays (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1998), p. 621.
69. “with all his buoyant sparkle”: quoted in Jon Meacham’s excellent book, Franklin and Winston: An Intimate Portrait of an Epic Friendship (New York: Random House, 2003), p. xiv.
70. “At a time of weakness”: Berlin, Proper Study of Mankind, p. 629.
71. “by his astonishing appetite for life”: ibid., p. 615.
72. “I can see to this day”: Wilson Brown, quoted in Geoffrey C. Ward, A First-Class Temperament: The Emergence of Franklin Roosevelt (New York: Harper Perennial, 1989), p. 221.
73. “showed immediately that he was at home”: Ward, First-Class Temperament, p. 222.
74. “I’m nearly dead”: FDR to Frances Perkins, quoted in Meacham, Franklin and Winston, p. 237.
75. “he seemed to have been endowed”: Violet Bonham Carter, obituary of Churchill, The Times (London), January 26, 1965.
76. “We are all worms”: Violet Bonham Carter, “Winston Churchill—As I Know Him,” in Winston Spencer Churchill: Servant of Crown and Commonwealth, ed. James Marchant (London: Cassell, 1954), p. 149.
77. “tearing spirits”: Brendan Bracken, quoted in Moran, Churchill, p. 795.
78. “was our hope”: C. P. Snow, Variety of Men (New York: Scribners, 1966), p. 149.
79. “Churchill had a very powerful mind”: ibid., p. 167.
80. “The multitudes were swept forward”: Winston Churchill, Great Contemporaries (1937; Safety Harbor, Fla.: Simon, 2001), p. 123.
81. “I remember early in the war”: quoted in Moran, Churchill, p. 773.
82. “He was indeed made for the hour”: Moran, Churchill, pp. 832–33.
83. “I was very glad”: Winston Churchill, speech to Parliament, November 30, 1954, in Never Give In!: The Best of Winston Churchill’s Speeches, selected by his grandson Winston S. Churchill (New York: Hyperion, 2003), p. 490.
84. “rain festival”: Jane Goodall, Africa in My Blood: An Autobiography in Letters: The Early Years, ed. Dale Peterson (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000), pp. 171–72.
85. Dance and music are an ancient part: Anthony Storr, Music and the Mind (London: HarperCollins, 1992); Robert Jourdain, Music, the Brain, and Ecstasy (New York: William Morrow, 1997); Nils L. Wallin, Björn Merker, and Steven Brown, eds., The Origins of Music (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2001); R. J. Zatorre and C. L. Krumhansi, “Mental Models and Musical Minds,” Science, 298: 2138–39 (2002); P. Janata, J. L. Birk, J. D. Van Horn, M. Leman, B. Tillman, and J. J. Bharucha, “The Cortical Topography of Tonal Structures Underlying Western Music,” Science, 298: 2167–70 (2002).
86. “To fling my arms wide”: Langston Hughes, “Dream Variations,” in Selected Poems of Langston Hughes (New York: Vintage, 1959), p. 14.
87. “The [river] boat was still far off”: quoted in Laurence Bergreen, Louis Armstrong: An Extravagant Life (New York: Broadway Books, 1997), p. 148.
88. “It was a breakdown”: Hoagy Carmichael and Stephen Longstreet, Sometimes I Wonder (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1965), pp. 57–58.
89. “distinctly American brand of optimism”: Bergreen, Louis Armstrong, pp. 5–6.
90. “his sound is both the most modern and the most ancient”: quoted in Dick Russell, Black Genius and the American Experience (New York: Carroll & Graf, 1998), p. 32.
91. “The question in jazz”: quoted ibid., p. 33.
92. “They all know I’m there”: quoted ibid., p. 35. Armstrong continued, “Through all of the misfortunes, etc., I did not plan anything. Life was there for me and I accepted it. And life, whatever came out, has been beautiful to me, and I love everybody” (pp. 35–36).
93. Music evolved as a “play-space”: quoted in Susan Milius, “Face the Music,” Natural History, December 2001-January 2002, pp. 48–57.
94. “was game for anything”: Bergreen, Louis Armstrong, p. 161.
95. the songs of humpback whales: R. Payne, “Whale Songs: Musicability or Man
tra?” paper presented at Bio Music Symposium, American Association for the Advancement of Science Annual Meeting, 2000. See also P. M. Gray, B. Krause, J. Atema, C. Krumhansl, and L. Batista, “The Music of Nature and the Nature of Music,” Science, 291: 52–54 (2001).
96. Music activates the same reward systems: A. J. Blood and R. J. Zatorre, “Intensely Pleasurable Responses to Music Correlate with Activity in Brain Regions Implicated in Reward and Emotion,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 98: 11818–23 (2001).
97. decreases activity in brain structures: ibid.
98. “Music exalts life”: Storr, Music and the Mind, p. 188.
99. “Man’s extremity”: William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience (1902; London: Penguin, 1982), pp. 47–48.
100. The ecstasy associated with religious experiences: James, The Varieties of Religious Experience; Marghanita Laski, Ecstasy: A Study of Some Secular and Religious Experiences (London: Cresset, 1961).
101. “broke up in a single moment”: C. S. Lewis: Surprised by Joy: The Shape of My Early Life (San Diego: Harvest, 1955), p. 72.
102. “I knew (with fatal knowledge)”: ibid., p. 73.
103. “allows you to keep going”: David Sloan Wilson, Darwin’s Cathedral: Evolution, Religion, and the Nature of Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002).
104. “denote the ravings of insanity”: Henry Maudsley, Natural Causes and Supernatural Seemings (London: Kegan Paul, 1886), p. 221.
105. “The visitation [of Swedenborg’s hallucinations]”: ibid., pp. 241–42.
106. Neptune and Uranus: J. F. Nisbit, The Insanity of Genius (London: Grant Richards, 1900).
107. manic delusions and hallucinations: Emil Kraepelin, Manic-Depressive Insanity and Paranoia, trans. R. M. Barclay, ed. G. M. Robertson (Edinburgh: E. & S. Livingstone, 1921; reprinted New York: Arno Press, 1976); George Winokur, Paula Clayton, and Theodore Reich, Manic-Depressive Illness (St. Louis: C. V. Mosby, 1969); Frederick K. Goodwin and Kay R. Jamison, Manic-Depressive Illness (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 262–68.
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