Gaia
As I’ve researched and written this book, I’ve come to understand more completely the vast, interconnected systems of oceans, atmosphere and continents and how they are animated by fire — the Earth’s heat and the sun’s radiation. But I’ve also been struck by the influence that life has had on these systems. Despite radical changes to the ratio of gases in the atmosphere over the past billion years, the surface temperature of Earth has been maintained within a very narrow range. Exactly the range required by life. There have also been several ice ages during that span, but every time the Earth has recovered, even from Snowball Earth. Furthermore, despite the constant inflow of minerals deposited by rivers, the salinity of the oceans has remained constant for hundreds of millions of years. These self-regulating constants are hard to explain without taking into account the influence of organic processes.
According to James Lovelock, it is life that has tweaked our atmosphere for billions of years, life that has determined the oceans’ salinity. In his 1979 book Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth, he set out his theory about how life processes are inextricably intertwined with the non-biological realms of the atmosphere and the oceans. The inspiration for this theory came years earlier, in 1965. He later recalled the exact moment: “An awesome thought came over me. The earth’s atmosphere was an extraordinary and unstable mixture of gases, yet I knew that it was constant in composition over quite long periods of time. Could it be that life on earth not only made the atmosphere, but also regulated it — keeping it at a constant composition, and at a level favorable for organisms?” It was a eureka moment of the first degree.
He named his theory the Gaia Hypothesis, after the Greek goddess who personified Earth. Lovelock’s theory has been challenged by some scientists who claim that atmospheric levels of nitrogen as well as the Earth’s surface temperature and the salinity of the ocean are independent of life processes. The debate is ongoing. Yet I think that whether or not life is regulating or maintaining Earth’s surface temperature or the composition of the atmosphere, it is simply enough to acknowledge that life has profoundly transformed all of these processes. Life isn’t just the skin of our planet; it has insinuated itself into Earth’s geological pulse, not only using it but also shaping it, along with the oceans and atmosphere beyond. This is the unprecedented truth that transcends any quibbles about self-regulating planetary systems. It is to acknowledge the extraordinary power of life itself.
Appendix
Measurement Conversions
(Some figures have been rounded.)
Introduction
20 miles per hour = 32 kilometers per hour
29.8 inches = 1009 millibars
50 miles per hour = 80 kilometers per hour
1. Stormy with a Chance of Life
10 grams = 0.35 ounces
80–90 grams = 2.8–3.2 ounces
2 kilograms = 4.4 pounds
200 kilograms = 441 pounds
53 tons = 48 tonnes
50,000 tons = 45,360 tonnes
1,000 feet = 305 meters
1 square foot = 0.0929 square meters
130–230 megatonnes = 143–254 megatons
332 gigatonnes = 365 gigatons
439 gigatonnes = 484 gigatons
29 gigatonnes = 32 gigatons
771 gigatonnes = 850 gigatons
180 megatonnes = 198 megatons
375,000 trillion gallons = 1,420 trillion liters
2. The Wild Blue Yonder
5,200 million million tons = 4,717 million million tonnes
25 million tons = 23 million tonnes
2,000 miles = 3,219 kilometers
1,000 miles = 1,609 kilometers
0.5 miles = 0.8 kilometers
18 miles = 29 kilometers
123° Celsius = 253° Fahrenheit
-181° Celsius = -293.8° Fahrenheit
19 miles = 30.5 kilometers
29,029 feet = 8.851 kilometers
1.5 miles = 2.4 kilometers
35–40,000 feet = 10.6–.12 kilometers
23,018 feet = 7 kilometers
328 feet = 100 meters
90,000 cubic feet = 2,548 cubic meters
1 Celsius degree = 1.8 Fahrenheit degrees
3 miles = 4.8 kilometers
330 miles per hour = 530 kilometers per hour
30 inches = 1015.92 millibars
2 inches = 67.7 millibars
0.5 miles = 0.805 kilometers
11.5 inches = 29 centimeters
26,400 feet = 8 kilometers
-23° Celsius = -10° Fahrenheit
7 miles = 11.2 kilometers
-60° Celsius = -76° Fahrenheit
18 miles = 29 kilometers
13 miles = 21 kilometers
12–19 miles = 20–30 kilometers
0° Celsius = 32° Fahrenheit
14 miles = 22 kilometers
20 miles = 32 kilometers
-3° Celsius = 26.6° Fahrenheit
31 miles = 50 kilometers
50 miles = 80 kilometers
19 miles = 30.5 kilometers
45,000 feet = 12.8 kilometers
120,000 feet = 35.4 kilometers
217,000 feet = 66 kilometers
314,750 feet = 95 kilometers
50 miles = 80 kilometers
160 miles = 240 kilometers
500–2,000º Celsius = 932–3,632º Fahrenheit
200 miles = 322 kilometers
240 miles = 386 kilometers
1 mile = 1.6 kilometers
40 miles = 64 kilometers
3,000º Celsius = 5,432º Fahrenheit
770 miles per hour = 6 kilometers per second
430 miles = 692 kilometers
6,200 miles = 9,978 kilometers
3. Cloud Nine: Inside the Misty Giants above Our Heads
38° Celsius = 100° Fahrenheit
0° Celsius = 32° Fahrenheit
10 miles = 16 kilometers
-40° Celsius = -40° Fahrenheit
2 Celsius degrees = 3.6° Fahrenheit
1,000 feet = 304 meters
18° Celsius = 64° Fahrenheit
9,000 feet = 2,743 meters
3,280 feet = 1,000 meters
30° Celsius = 86° Fahrenheit
16,400 feet = 5 kilometers
-40° Celsius = -40° Fahrenheit
18,000 feet = 5,486 meters
42,240–52,800 feet = 13–16 kilometers
16,500–50,000 feet = 5–15 kilometers
6,500 feet = 2 kilometers
12–15 miles = 20–25 kilometers
47,000 feet = 14,325 meters
-50º Celsius = -58º Fahrenheit
10,000 feet = 3,048 meters
6,000 feet = 1.8 kilometers
4. The Poem of Earth: Rain
0.5 millimeters = .019 inches
4.5 miles per hour = 2 meters per second
5 millimeters = .197 inches
20 miles per hour = 9 meters per second
125 miles per hour = 201 kilometers per hour
9 millimeters = .354 inches
50 square miles = 80 square kilometers
18 inches = 45.7 centimeters
20 feet = 6 meters
28 inches = 71 centimeters
44° Celsius = 111° Fahrenheit
1,000 feet = 304.8 meters
350 million tons = 318 million tonnes
12 million tons = 11 million tonnes
15 feet = 4.5 meters
200 miles = 322 kilometers
-40° Celsius = -40° Fahrenheit
350 miles = 600 kilometers
180 pounds = 82 kilograms
80 pounds = 36.2 kilograms
60,000 feet = 18.3 ki
lometers
50 pounds = 22.6 kilograms
300 hundred square miles = 482.8 square kilometers
250,000 acre-feet = 308,250,000 cubic meters
2,500 miles = 4,023 kilometers
138 inches = 350.5 centimeters
460 inches = 1,168 centimeters
74 inches = 188 centimeters
1,042 inches = 2,646.6 centimeters
-1° Celsius = 30° Fahrenheit
1° Celsius = 33.5° Fahrenheit
4 inches = 10.1 centimeters
5. The Secret Life of Storms
14° Celsius = 57° Fahrenheit
19,000 miles = 30,000 kilometers
37,000 miles = 60,000 kilometers
932 miles per hour = 1,500 kilometers per hour
6,500 feet = 1.2 miles
30,000° Celsius = 54,000° Fahrenheit
124 miles = 200 kilometers
25–56 miles = 40–90 kilometers
31 miles = 50 kilometers
245 miles = 400 kilometers
8 inches = 20 centimeters
6,000 miles = 9,656 kilometers
100 miles per hour = 161 kilometers per hour
2 pounds = 0.9 kilograms
7 inches = 17.7 centimeters
2.5 pounds = 1.1 kilograms
105 miles per hour = 169 kilometers per hour
40–70 miles per hour = 64–113 kilometers per hour
261–319 miles per hour = 420–513 kilometers per hour
150 miles per hour = 241 kilometers per hour
100 miles per hour = 160 kilometers per hour
2 square miles = 6 square kilometers
10,000 feet = 1.9 miles
2–3 miles = 3–5 kilometers
35 miles per hour = 55 kilometers per hour
5 miles per hour = 8 kilometers per hour
6. Katrina: The Life Story of a Hurricane
25–38 miles per hour = 20–34 kilometers per hour
2,408 miles = 3,875 kilometers
26.5° Celsius = 80° Fahrenheit
150 feet = 50 meters
1,600 miles = 2,600 kilometers
39 miles per hour = 63 kilometers per hour
2.3 miles = 3.7 kilometers
26.05 inches mercury = 882.15 millibars
27.5 inches mercury = 931.25 millibars
230 miles = 370 kilometers
74–95 miles per hour = 119–153 kilometers per hour
155 miles per hour = 249 kilometers per hour
175 miles per hour = 282 kilometers per hour
4–5 feet = 1.2–1.5 meters
18 feet = 5.5 meters
42 feet = 13 meters
155 miles per hour = 249.4 kilometers per hour
40 miles = 64 kilometers
300 miles = 500 kilometers
10,000 feet = 1.9 miles
500 feet = 152 meters
25–28 feet = 7.6–8.5 meters
7. Palace of the Winds
39 feet = 12 meters
26 feet = 8 meters
10° Celsius = 18° Fahrenheit
3,281 feet = 1,000 meters
40° Celsius = 72° Fahrenheit
12 inches = 30.5 centimeters
-20° Celsius = -4° Fahrenheit
7° Celsius = 44.6° Fahrenheit
-48° Celsius = -54° Fahrenheit
57° Celsius = 103° Fahrenheit
9° Celsius = 49° Fahrenheit
93 miles per hour = 150 kilometers per hour
1.15 miles per hour = 1.85 kilometers per hour
75 miles per hour = 120 kilometers per hour
200 miles per hour = 322 kilometers per hour
100 miles per hour = 160 kilometers per hour
32,000 feet = 10,000 meters
402 miles per hour = 250 kilometers per hour
310 miles per hour = 500 kilometers per hour
8. Which Way the Wind Blows: The Story of Weather Forecasting
34 feet = 10.3 meters
42 feet = 13 meters
32 inches = 80 centimeters
125 square miles = 201 square kilometers
30.9 inches = 1,045 millibars
9. Apollo’s Chariot: The Seasons
93 million miles = 149.6 million kilometers
67,000 miles per hour = 108,000 kilometers per hour
0.7 miles per hour = 1.2 kilometers per hour
17 miles per day = 29 kilometers per day
11 miles = 17 kilometers
1 mile = 1.6 kilometer
6,000 miles = 9,656 kilometers
278 million miles = 299 million kilometers
584 million miles = 940 million kilometers
21° Celsius = 70° Fahrenheit
2,000–3,000 feet = 609–914 meters
37° Celsius = 99° Fahrenheit
38º Celsius = 100º Fahrenheit
58º Celsius = 136º Fahrenheit
30° Celsius = 86° Fahrenheit
15° Celsius = 59° Fahrenheit
34° Celsius = 93° Fahrenheit
25° Celsius = 77° Fahrenheit
42° Celsius = 108° Fahrenheit
7° Celsius = 6° Fahrenheit
800 miles = 1,287 kilometers
400 miles = 643.7 kilometers
10. A Cold Place: Winter and the Ice Ages
-10° Celsius = 14° Fahrenheit
-15° Celsius = 5° Fahrenheit
-22° Celsius = -7.6° Fahrenheit
35° Celsius = 95° Fahrenheit
18° Celsius = 65° Fahrenheit
-20° Celsius = -4° Fahrenheit
-27° Celsius = -16.6° Fahrenheit
-28° Celsius = -14.4° Fahrenheit
35° Celsius = 95° Fahrenheit
32.2° Celsius = 90° Fahrenheit
31° Celsius = 88° Fahrenheit
30° Celsius = 86° Fahrenheit
29° Celsius = 85° Fahrenheit
-20º Celsius = -4º Fahrenheit
20,000 feet = 6 kilometers
-270.45° Celsius = -455° Fahrenheit
6 feet = 1.8 meters
1.5 miles = 2.4 kilometers
8º Celsius = 46° Fahrenheit
-18° Celsius = -0.3° Fahrenheit
-63° Celsius = -81° Fahrenheit
40 miles per hour = 64 kilometers per hour
200 miles per hour = 322 kilometers per hour
-89.2° Celsius = -128.6° Fahrenheit
-32° Celsius = -26° Fahrenheit
-17.2° Celsius = 1.0° Fahrenheit
- 107° Celsius = -161° Fahrenheit
-35º Celsius = -31º Fahrenheit
65 feet = 20 meters
0.6 miles = 1 kilometers
65 feet = 20 meters
10 billion tons = 9 billion tonnes
-30° Celsius = -22° Fahrenheit
-40° Celsius = -40° Fahrenheit
23° Celsius = 73° Fahrenheit
330 feet = 100 meters
65 feet = 20 meters
16 feet = five meters
11. Climate Change Past and Present
8 feet = 2.4 meters
6 feet = 2 meters
330 feet = 100 meters
2 miles = 3.2 kilometers
435 miles = 700 kilometers
330 feet = 100 meters
16° Celsius = 29° Fahrenheit
15° Celsius = 27° Fahrenheit
3 feet = 1 meter
5.6° Celsius = 42° Fahrenheit
10.4° Celsius = 50.8° Fahrenheit
1.2° Celsius = 2° Fahrenheit
0.8° Celsius = 1.5° Fahrenheit
771 gigatonnes = 850 gig
atons
29 gigatonnes = 32 gigatons
2° Celsius = 3.6° Fahrenheit
11 inches = 28 centimeters
12. Weather That Changed History
40 tons = 36 tonnes
120 feet = 37 meters
700 miles = 1,126.5 kilometers
-40° Celsius = -40° Fahrenheit
-45° Celsius = -49 °Fahrenheit
-28° Celsius = -20 °Fahrenheit
-41° Celsius = -44 °Fahrenheit
-30° Celsius = -22° Fahrenheit
30° Celsius = 86° Fahrenheit
19° Celsius = 66.2° Fahrenheit
26° Celsius = 78.8° Fahrenheit
23° Celsius = 73.4° Fahrenheit
21° Celsius = 69.8° Fahrenheit
2.9° Celsius = 5.2° Fahrenheit
19° Celsius = 66.2° Fahrenheit
22° Celsius = 71.6° Fahrenheit
28° Celsius = 82.4° Fahrenheit
25 miles per hour = 40 kilometers per hour
Postscript. Fire, Water, Earth, Air: A Visit to Earth’s Core
900° Celsius = 1,652° Fahrenheit
40 miles = 64 kilometers
93 million miles = 150 million kilometers
10–60 miles = 20–90 kilometers
22 miles = 35 kilometers
3–6 miles = 5–10 kilometers
14,000 feet = 4,267 meters
17,000 feet = 5,181 meters
601 feet = 183 meters
7.6 miles = 12,262 meters
6 miles = 10,000 meters
180° Celsius = 356° Fahrenheit
7 miles = 11.2 kilometers
10 million tons = 9.1 million tonnes
3,960 miles = 6,371 kilometers
3–6 miles = 5–10 kilometers
22 miles = 35 kilometers
15–35 miles = 24–56 kilometers
12–20 feet = 3.6–6 meters
11° Celsius = 52° Fahrenheit
2.4 miles = 4 kilometers
60° Celsius = 140° Fahrenheit
18 Miles Page 24
