22. Rashīd al-Dīn, Compendium of Chronicles, 519.
23. Reuven Amitai-Preiss, Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 89–90; Anne Broadbridge, Kingship and Ideology in the Islamic and Mongol Worlds (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 59–61. Around 1271–1272, Möngke-Temür wrote to the Mamluk sultan to encourage him to fight Abaqa and possibly to ally with Qaidu, but no concrete plan was ever established.
24. The exact date of the foundation of the Genoese settlement in Caffa is unknown. It is mentioned for the first time in 1281: Gheorghe Bratianu, Actes des notaires génois de Péra et de Caffa de la fin du XIIIe siècle (1281–1290) (Bucharest: Académie Roumaine, 1927), 74. However, the sources refer to an established Genoese trading post, so the settlement must have been built a few years earlier. Virgil Ciocîltan, The Mongols and the Black Sea Trade in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries (Leiden: Brill, 2012), 152–157.
25. Victor Spinei, “La genèse des villes du Sud-Est de la Moldavie et les rapports commerciaux des XIIIe–XIVe siècles,” Balkan Studies 35, no. 2 (1994): 197–269, 248.
26. Spinei, “La genèse des villes du Sud-Est de la Moldavie,” 222, 228–229.
27. Spinei, “La genèse des villes du Sud-Est de la Moldavie,” 210, 221, 244–245, 253, 256; Ernest Oberländer-Târnoveanu “Numismatical Contributions to the History of South-Eastern Europe at the End of the 13th Century,” Revue roumaine d’Histoire 26, no. 3 (1987): 245–258.
28. Spinei, “La genèse des villes du Sud-Est de la Moldavie,” 204–206, 234–236.
29. On the Genoese trading posts on the Black Sea, see Spinei, “La genèse des villes du Sud-Est de la Moldavie,” 212–215. For the text of the Treaty of Nymphaeum, see Camillo Manfroni, “Le relazioni fra Genova l’impero bizantino e i Turchi,” Atti della societa ligure di storia patria 28 (1896): 791–809.
30. Spinei, “La genèse des villes du Sud-Est de la Moldavie,” 219, 232–234; Sergei Karpov, “The Grain Trade in the Southern Black Sea Region: The Thirteenth to the Fifteenth Century,” Mediterranean Historical Review 8, no. 1 (1993): 55–73.
31. See Marco Polo, The Book of Ser Marco Polo, vol. 2, book 4, 479–486; Ibn Fadl Allāh al-‘Umarī, Das mongolische Weltreich: Al-’Umarī’s Darstellung der mongolischen Reiche in seinem Werk Masālik al-absār fī mamālik al-amsār, ed. and trans. Klaus Lech (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1968), 75–77, 80 (in Arabic), 142–143, 145 (in German). See also Allsen, “Princes of the Left Hand,” 30; and Janet Martin, “The Land of Darkness and the Golden Horde: The Fur Trade under the Mongols XIII–XIVth Centuries,” Cahiers du Monde russe et soviétique 19, no. 4 (1978): 401–421.
32. Marie Favereau, “The Mongol Peace and Global Medieval Eurasia,” Comparativ 28, no. 4 (2018): 49–70, 66–67. See also Thomas Allsen, “Mongolian Princes and Their Merchant Partners, 1200–1260,” Asia Major, 2, no. 2 (1989): 83–126; Elizabeth Endicott-West, “Merchant Associations in Yüan China: The Ortogh,” Asia Major 2, no. 2 (1989): 127–153.
33. Marco Polo, The Book of Ser Marco Polo, vol. 2, book 4, 479–481; Biran, Qaidu, 64–66. The precise date and cause of Möngke-Temür’s death remain unknown. Rashīd al-Dīn claimed that the khan died in 681 AH / 1282–1283 (Compendium of Chronicles, 362) and, as far as I know, the first coins bearing the name of Töde-Möngke date to 682 AH. Roza Sagdeeva, Serebrianie monety khanov Zolotoi Ordy (Moscow, 2005), 11–12.
34. Rashīd al-Dīn, Compendium of Chronicles, 438; Biran, Qaidu, 64–65; Allsen, “Princes of the Left Hand,” 21.
35. Rashīd al-Dīn, Compendium of Chronicles, 349.
36. On Nogay’s origins, see Muʿizz al-ansāb, 43. On diplomatic exchange between Nogay and Baybars, see Broadbridge, Kingship and Ideology, 59–60.
37. Rashīd al-Dīn, Compendium of Chronicles, 365–366. On the peace between Nogay and the Ilkhanids, see also Broadbridge, Kingship and Ideology, 60.
38. Moskovskii letopisnii svod kontsa XV veka. (Polnoe sobranie russkikh letopisei), vol. 25 (Moscow, Leningrad: Izdatel’stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1949), 153–154.
39. Georges Pachymérès, Relations historiques, ed. Albert Failler, trans. Laurent Vitalien, 5 vols. (Paris: Belles Lettres, 1984), vol. 1, 302, 448; Thomas Tanase, “Le ‘khan’ Nogaï et la géopolitique de la mer Noire en 1287 à travers un document missionnaire: la lettre de Ladislas, custode de Gazarie,” Annuario Istituto Romeno di Cultura e Ricerca Umanistica 6, no. 7 (2004–2005), 277.
40. Tanase, “Le ‘khan’ Nogaï,” 287–288; Peter Jackson, The Mongols and the West, 1221–1410 (Harlow, UK: Pearson-Longman, 2005), 204–205.
41. For more on the rise of Nogay, see Nikolai Veselovskii, Khan iz temnikov Zolotoi Ordy. Nogai i evo vremia (Petrograd, 1922); Ciocîltan, The Mongols and the Black Sea, 248–264; Tanase, “Le ‘khan’ Nogaï,” 272–277.
42. Rashīd al-Dīn, Compendium of Chronicles, 362–363; Baybars al-Dawādār, Zubdat al-fikra fī ta’rīkh al-hijra, in Sbornik materialov, otnosiashchikhsia k istorii Zolotoi Ordy, vol. 1: Izvlecheniia iz sochinenii arabskikh, ed. Vladimir Tizengauzen [Tiesenhausen] (St. Petersburg: Izdano na izhdivenie grafa S.G. Stroganova, 1884), 83–84 (in Arabic), 106 (Russian transl.); Jackson, The Mongols and the West, 205.
43. Kim, “The Unity of the Mongol Empire,” 26; Rashīd al-Dīn, Compendium of Chronicles, on Nogay offering a sharil: 567; on Jochids’ attack through Derbent: 573.
44. Girolamo Golubovich, Biblioteca bio-bibliografica della Terra Santa e dell’ Oriente Francescano, vol. 2: Addenda al sec. XIII e Fonti pel sec. XIV, con tre carte geografiche dell’ Oriente Francescano de’ sec. XIII–XIV (Florence: Collegio di s. Bonaventura, 1913), nb. 14, 262; Tanase, “Le ‘khan’ Nogaï,” 292–294.
45. Tanase, “Le ‘khan’ Nogaï,” 269–270, 274, 290–298.
46. Rashīd al-Dīn, Compendium of Chronicles, 363.
47. For Russian sources on “Tudan’s raid,” see Lavrent’evskaia letopis’ (Polnoe sobranie russkikh letopisei, vol. 1), (Leningrad: Izdatel’stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1926–1927), col. 527; Simeonovskaia letopis’ (Polnoe sobranie russkikh letopisei, vol. 18), (St. Petersburg: Tipografiia M.A. Aleksandrova, 1913), 82; Vladimirskii letopisets. Novgorodskaia vtoraia (Arkhivskaia) letopis’ (Polnoe sobranie russkikh letopisei, vol. 30), (Moscow: Rukopisnye pamiatniki Drevnei Rusi, 2009), 98. See also Donald Ostrowski, Muscovy and the Mongols: Cross-Cultural Influences on the Steppe Frontier (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 150–151.
48. The exact position of Salji’üdai is unclear. Toqto’a called him “his officer,” and Rashīd al-Dīn describes Salji’üdai as an amīr, military commander, in service to the Jochid khan. Rashīd al-Dīn, Compendium of Chronicles, 364, 381–382; Muʿizz al-ansāb, 41. See also Tatyana Skrynnikova, “Relations of Domination and Submission: Political Practice in the Mongol Empire of Chinggis Khan,” in Imperial Statecraft: Political Forms and Techniques of Governance in Inner Asia, Sixth–Twentieth Centuries, ed. David Sneath (Bellingham, WA: Center for East Asian Studies, Western Washington University, 2007), 111–112; Christopher Atwood, “Titles, Appanages, Marriages, and Officials: A Comparison of Political Forms in the Zünghar and Thirteenth-Century Mongol Empires,” in Imperial Statecraft: Political Forms and Techniques of Governance in Inner Asia, Sixth-Twentieth Centuries Centuries, ed. David Sneath (Bellingham, WA: Center for East Asian Studies, Western Washington University, 2007), 226; and Ishayahu Landa, “From Mongolia to Khwārazm: The Qonggirad Migrations in the Jochid Ulus (13th–15th c.),” Revue des mondes musulmans et de la Méditerranée 143 (2018), 217.
49. Petrov, “Jochid Money and Monetary Policy,” 622; Oberländer-Târnoveanu, “Numismatical Contributions,” 245–258; István Vásáry, Cumans and Tatars: Oriental Military in the Pre-Ottoman Balkans, 1185–1365 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 90–91; Aleksandar Uzelac, “Echoes of the Conflict between Tokhta and Nogai in the Christian World,” Zolotoordynskoe obozrenie 5, no. 3 (2017), 510. The sources also refer to Cheke as “Jöge.”
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50. Rashīd al-Dīn, Compendium of Chronicles, 365; Ciocîltan, The Mongols and the Black Sea, 161–162.
51. Rashīd al-Dīn, Compendium of Chronicles, 365.
52. Pachymérès, Relations historiques, vol. 1 part 3, 289–290; see also Uzelac, “Echoes of the Conflict,” 512; Rashīd al-Dīn, Compendium of Chronicles, 365; Ciocîltan, The Mongols and the Black Sea, 253.
53. Marco Polo, The Travels of Marco Polo, 314; Rashīd al-Dīn, Compendium of Chronicles, 364–366. On Polo’s rendering of the Jochid civil war, see Uzelac, “Echoes of the Conflict,” 515–516.
54. Vásáry, Cumans and Tatars, 71–98; Ciocîltan, The Mongols and the Black Sea, 259–279.
55. Christopher Atwood, “Ulus Emirs, Keshig Elders, Signatures, and Marriage Partners: The Evolution of a Classic Mongol Institution,” in Imperial Statecraft: Political Forms and Techniques of Governance in Inner Asia, Sixth-Twentieth Centuries, ed. David Sneath (Bellingham, WA: Center for East Asian Studies, Western Washington University, 2007), 160–161.
56. Rashīd al-Dīn, Compendium of Chronicles, 364. On qarachu, including Salji’üdai, see Skrynnikova, “Relations of Domination and Submission,” 100–101, 104–115, 110–111.
57. On Nogay’s rule, see Devin DeWeese, Islamization and Native Religion in the Golden Horde: Baba Tükles and Conversion to Islam in Historical and Epic Tradition (University Park: Penn State University Press, 1994), 88–89.
6 • THE NORTHERN ROAD
1. Francesco Balducci Pegolotti, La pratica della mercatura, ed. Allen Evans (Cambridge, MA: Medieval Academy of America, 1936; reprint 1970), 21–23.
2. See Sir Henry Yule, Cathay and the Way Thither: A Collection of Medieval Notices of China, 4 vols. (London: printed for the Hakluyt Society, 1913–1916), vol. 3, 49; Hodong Kim, “The Unity of the Mongol Empire and Continental Exchange over Eurasia,” Journal of Central Eurasian Studies 1 (2009): 15–42, 27–28; Marie Favereau, “The Mongol Peace and Global Medieval Eurasia,” Comparativ 28, no. 4 (2018): 49–70, 63–66.
3. Marco Polo, The Book of Ser Marco Polo, the Venetian: Concerning the Kingdoms and Marvels of the East, trans. and ed. Sir Henry Yule (London: J. Murray, 1921), vol. 2, book 4, 480–484.
4. Rashīd al-Dīn, Rashiduddin Fazlullah’s-Jamiʿu’t-tawarikh. Compendium of Chronicles: A History of the Mongols, trans. Wheeler Thackston (Cambridge, MA: Dept. of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, Harvard University, 1998–1999), 349; Muʿizz al-ansāb. Proslavliaiushchee genealogii, ed. A. K. Muminov, trans. Sh. Kh. Vokhidov (Almaty, 2006), 39. See also Thomas Allsen, “Princes of the Left Hand: The Ulus of Orda in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries,” Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 5 (1985–1987), 18–19.
5. Rashīd al-Dīn, Compendium of Chronicles, 349–350. Allsen, “Princes of the Left Hand,” 23–24. Michal Biran, Qaidu and the Rise of the Independent Mongol State in Central Asia (Richmond: Curzon, 1997), 65–66, 69–74.
6. Antoine Mostaert and Francis W. Cleaves, Les lettres de 1289 et 1305 des ilkhan Arghun et Öljeitu à Philippe le Bel (Cambridge, MA: Harvard-Yenching Institute, Harvard University Press, 1962), 55–56 (Mongolian text), 56–57 (French translation). See also Peter Jackson, “World Conquest and Local Accommodation: Threat and Blandishment in Mongol Diplomacy,” in History and Historiography of Post-Mongol Central Asia and the Middle East: Studies in Honour of John E. Woods, ed. Judith Pfeiffer and Sholeh Quinn (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2006), 15–16.
7. Allsen, “Princes of the Left Hand,” 22–25. Biran, Qaidu, 64–66; Yingsheng Liu, “War and Peace between the Yuan Dynasty and the Chaghadaid Khanate (1312–1323),” in Mongols, Turks, and Others: Eurasian Nomads and the Sedentary World, ed. Reuven Amitai and Michal Biran (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 340–342.
8. Rashīd al-Dīn, Compendium of Chronicles, 583, 649, 654; Kim, “The Unity of the Mongol Empire,” 26–27; Anne Broadbridge, Kingship and Ideology in the Islamic and Mongol Worlds (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 87–93, 95, 131; Marie Favereau, “The Mamluk Sultanate and the Golden Horde: Tension and Interaction during the Mongol Peace,” in The Mamluk Sultanate from the Perspective of Regional and World History: Economic, Social and Cultural Development in an Era of Increasing International Interaction and Competition, ed. Reuven Amitai and Stephan Conermann (Bonn: V&R Unipress, 2019), 355–356; John A. Boyle, “Dynastic and Political History of the Il-Khans,” in The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 5: The Saljuq and Mongol Periods, ed. John A. Boyle (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968), 392–393.
9. Vincenzo Promis, “Continuazione della Cronaca di Jacopo da Varagine dal 1297 al 1332,” Atti della societa’ ligure di storia patria 10 (1874), 500–501; al-Nuwayrī, Nihāyat al-Arab fī funūn al-adab, in Vladimir Tizengauzen [Tiesenhausen], ed., Sbornik materialov, otnosiashchikhsia k istorii Zolotoi Ordy, vol. 1: Izvlecheniia iz sochinenii arabskikh (St. Petersburg: Izdano na izhdivenie grafa S.G. Stroganova, 1884), 140 (in Arabic), 162 (in Russian transl.); Virgil Ciocîltan, The Mongols and the Black Sea Trade in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries (Leiden: Brill, 2012), 163–173; Nicola Di Cosmo, “Mongols and Merchants on the Black Sea Frontier in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries: Convergences and Conflicts,” in Mongols, Turks and Others: Eurasian Nomads and the Sedentary World, ed. Reuven Amitai and Michal Biran (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 412–413; Girolamo Golubovich, Biblioteca bio-bibliografica della Terra Santa e dell’ Oriente Francescano, vol. 3: 1300–1330 (Florence: Collegio di s. Bonaventura, 1919), 173–174.
10. Pavel Petrov, “Jochid Money and Monetary Policy in the 13th–15th Centuries,” in The Golden Horde in World History, ed. Rafael Khakimov, Vadim Trepavlov, and Marie Favereau (Kazan: Sh. Marjani Institute of the History of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, 2017), 621.
11. Petrov, “Jochid Money and Monetary Policy,” 623.
12. See Andrei Ponomarev, Evoliutsiia denezhnykh sistem Prichernomor’ia i Balkan v XIII–XV vv. (Moscow, 2011), 167–178. Pavel Petrov, Ia. V. Studitskii, and P. V. Serdiukov, “Provodilas’ li Toktoi Obshchevosudarstvennaia reforma 710 g.kh. Kubanskii klad vremeni Uzbek-Khana,” in Trudy Mezhdunarodnykh numizmaticheskikh konferencii. Monety i denezhnoe obrashchenie v mongol’skikh gosudarstvakh XIII–XV vekov (Moscow, 2005), 142–147, 205. Petrov, “Jochid Money and Monetary Policy,” 622–624.
13. Petrov, “Jochid Money and Monetary Policy,” 622.
14. See Petrov, Studitskii, and Serdiukov, “Provodilas’ li Toktoi Obshchevosudarstvennaia reforma,” 145–147.
15. There is some confusion in the sources between Toqto’a’s last embassy to the Mamluks and Özbek’s first. Doris Behrens-Abouseif, Practising Diplomacy in the Mamluk Sultanate: Gifts and Material Culture in the Medieval Islamic World (London: I. B. Tauris, 2014), 64–65. Depending on the sources, Toqto’a died either in a shipwreck or by poisoning while he was aboard ship: Muʿizz al-ansāb, 41; Devin DeWeese, Islamization and Native Religion in the Golden Horde: Baba Tükles and Conversion to Islam in Historical and Epic Tradition (University Park: Penn State University Press, 1994), 108.
16. DeWeese, Islamization, 118–119 and more generally, for sources narrating Özbek’s rise to power, see 106–22; Ibn Battuta, Voyages, vol. 2: De la Mecque aux steppes russes et à l’Inde, trans. and ed. C. Defrémery, B. R. Sanguinetti, and S. Yerasimos (Paris: Éditions Anthropos, 1982), 230n60.
17. German Fedorov-Davydov, Obshchestvennii stroi Zolotoi Ordy (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo Moskovskovo universiteta, 1973), 103–107; DeWeese, Islamization, 106–122.
18. DeWeese, Islamization, 93–94, 120.
19. DeWeese, Islamization, 107–115; Thomas Tanase, “A Christian Khan of the Golden Horde? ‘Coktoganus’ and the Geopolitics of the Golden Horde at the Time of Its Islamisation,” Revue des mondes musulmans et de la Méditerranée,143 (2018), 58–60. Abū Bakr al-Qutbī al-Ahrī, Taʾrīkh-i Shaykh Uways. History of Shaikh Uwais: An Important Source for the History of Adharbaijān in the Fourteenth Century, trans. and ed. J. B. van Loon (’s-Gravenhage: Uitgeverij Excelsior, 1954), 49.
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p; 20. In the Ilkhanid territory, the beglerbeg was one of the keshig elders, but the same may not have been true in the Horde. On the status of beglerbeg among the Ilkhanids, see Christopher Atwood, “Ulus Emirs, Keshig Elders, Signatures, and Marriage Partners: The Evolution of a Classic Mongol Institution,” in Imperial Statecraft: Political Forms and Techniques of Governance in Inner Asia, Sixth-Twentieth Centuries, ed. David Sneath (Bellingham, WA: Center for East Asian Studies, Western Washington University, 2007), 156–157, 163–164.
21. Ibn Battuta, Voyages, vol. 2, 225, 263, 269; Iurii Seleznev, E’lita Zolotoi Ordy: Nauchno-spravochnoe izdanie (Kazan, 2009), 92–93; Atwood, “Ulus Emirs, Keshig Elders,” 160–163. Nothing is known about Qutluq-Temür’s father beyond his name, Najm al-Dawla al-Dīn, and his Islamic faith. Qutluq-Temür’s mother was Özbek’s maternal aunt.
22. According to Mirkhwand, a Persian historian of the fifteenth century, Qutluq-Temür died in 736 H. / 1335–1336: Fedorov-Davydov, Obshchestvennii stroi Zolotoi Ordy, 90.
23. Petrov, “Jochid Money and Monetary Policy,” 624. On the proliferation of uluses within the Horde, see Arkadiy Grigor’ev and Ol’ga Frolova, “Geograficheskoe opisanie Zolotoi Ordy v Entsiklopedii al-Kalkashandi,” in Tiurkologicheskii sbornik 2001 (Moscow: Vostochnaia literatura, 2002).
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