Chinggis: ancestors and early life of, 31–36; assimilation of captives, 57–58, 60; burial sites and relics, 331n42; conquered Khwarezmian Empire, 49–62; consolidation of Mongol ulus, 36–42; death of, 76–77, 116–117; defeated Merkit and Naiman, 42–47; early battles and successes, 33–36; empire building by, 1–2, 304; heirs of, 1–2, 8; historical myths about, 27, 30; invaded Tangut empire, 48–49; legacy of, 273; maps of battles and territories, 28–29, 43, 52–53; marriages of, 12, 33–34, 36; plunder and spoils, 58–59; relationship with Qiu Chuji, 26–27, 30. See also inheritance scheme, of Chinggis Khan
Chinggis Nāme, 95, 295
Christianity: Jochid investment in institutions of, 308; Jochids built churches, 119; Qipchaq conversion to, 86. See also specific denominations
Chronicle of Novgorod, 73, 74, 75, 132
Chuji, Qiu (Taoist), 26–27, 30
cities, Jochid, 120–125, 237–240, 305–306. See also specific cities
civil war (Jochid), 20, 165, 190–205, 223–224
Civran, Andreolo (merchant), 247–248
coinage, in political economy, 7, 23, 118, 133–135, 146, 171–172, 190, 194, 201, 203, 214–216, 245, 267
Coloman (Hungarian prince), 89
Columbian exchange, and legacy of Mongol exchange, 6
communication and supply network, 51, 127–130, 129; trader access to, 114
Compendium of Chronicles (Rashīd al-Dīn), 98
Cosmo, Nicola Di, 7
Daniil (prince of Moscow), 227–230
decapitation, 46, 82, 223
Dei Sechen (Qonggirad chief), 33, 102
Delaplace, Grégory, 111
dhimmi system of religious toleration, 182
dietary practices, 111–113, 120, 212
Dmitrii (prince of Tver), 228
Dmitrii I (grand prince), 194, 199
Dmitrii Donskoi (grand prince), 270–272, 282
Doquz Khatun (Hülegü’s wife), 161
Dürlükin, 31–32
Edigü (beg), 22, 285–286, 287–288, 289, 290, 292–296
Ejen Orda. See Orda
elders and juniors, 38, 97, 104
els, 278, 280
enthronement rites, 98–99
Europe: casualties of Black Death, 256; grain trade with Jochids, 234; involvement in human trafficking, 234; trade routes to, 188–190, 291
Felt-Walled Tents, use of term, 30–31
foreigners, social norms regarding, 124
Forest Peoples, 42–43, 65. See also Merkit
fratricide, 97, 217, 264, 292
Frederick of Babenberg (duke of Austria), 87
fur trade, 155–159, 157, 165, 170, 190–191, 251–252, 256, 307
gender-assigned tasks, 123. See also women
Genoese: alliance with Toqtamish, 281–283; Berke’s pact with, 153; enforced trade embargo on the Horde, 186, 247–249; evicted by Toqto’a, 213, 232; and Jochid trade network, 189–190, 234; Nogay’s taxation of, 201; rebels subdued by Edigü, 288; territory of, 290; waged war on Solkhat, 284
George Terter (tsar of Bulgaria), 194, 224
Germans, 184, 189–190, 234
Ghazan (ilkhan), 215
Gök-Türks, 35
Golden Horde. See the Horde (Jochid) regime
golden lineage. See Kiyad-Borjigid
grain trade, 234, 248–249, 256
Great Nogay Horde, 294
Greeks, 189, 234
guards. See keshig
Güchülüq (Naiman prince), 44–46, 50, 51
gunpowder, use in warfare, 51
Güyük: census-taking by, 135; created Emil palace for foreign travelers, 119; enthronement of, 97–98, 99; as great khan, 92, 125; and Russian campaign, 81; as threat to Alexander Nevsky, 132
Hajji Tarkhan, 287, 289
Hämäläinen, Pekka, 298, 307
Han Chinese rebellion, 21, 257–258
Hanseatic League, 184, 189
Henry (duke of Greater Poland), 87, 88
herding: impact of Little Ice Age on, 265; importance of mare’s milk, 111–113; by Jochids, 9–10, 108–109; and mobility of hordes, 120, 126; and principles of sharing, 64, 111–112; and tümen system, 111; withdrawal from steppe settlements, 265
Hoi-yin Irgen. See Forest Peoples
the Horde (Jochid) regime: burial sites, 116–118; census-taking and taxation, 130–136; construction of Sarai, 118–119; conversion to Islam, 6, 14, 160–161; early domination in Russia, 136–137; during early thirteenth century, 21–22; establishment of, 1–2, 8; generosity and circulation of resources, 114–116; harnessed river valleys and controlled crossing points, 125–127; importance of mare’s milk, 111–113; independence and autonomy of, 116; integration policies, 6, 14; keshig, 102–106; leadership of, 12–13; legacy of, 299–309; long-distance trade, 5–6, 9–10, 19; mobility of, 11, 23, 25, 120–125, 127–130, 129; nomadic herding by, 9–10; power and governance principles, 11, 15–16, 18, 20, 21; primary research sources, 23–25; relationship to golden lineage, 97; royal marriages with vassal groups, 16, 226; seasonality as political instrument, 106–111; shift of power toward begs, 12–13, 20, 22, 266–272; territory of, 13, 125; toleration of religious diversity, 14, 181–182, 240; unification of, 21–22; war and self-governance in 1260s, 19; White and Blue Horde territories, 17–18, 95–96, 100. See also Mongol exchange; individual leaders; individual cities
horde, origin of term, 10–11, 12
the Horde’s successor states in post-anarchy period: after Toqtamish’s rule and downfall, 288–292; Edigü’s influence on new generation, 292–298; loss of Vorskla River battle, 284–288; Toqtamish as unifier of Blue and White hordes, 21–22, 274–284, 276–277, 291; transformation of Horde into khanates, 296–297
horses, 122, 128
Hülegü: alliance with Christians in Middle East, 160–161; colonized eastern Anatolia, 151; death of, 159; descendants of, 159; led Middle Eastern campaign, 142–146; marriages of, 161; succession struggles and conflict with Berke, 146–149, 337n17; territory of, 144; war with Jochids, 19
human trafficking, 130, 151, 185, 188, 202, 213, 233, 235, 285
Hungarian campaign (1241), 86–89, 92, 166
Hungarian campaign (1285), 194–196
Iaroslav (grand prince), 137
Ibn al-Athīr (historian): on conquest of Khwarezmian Empire, 50, 56–57, 59, 60; on fur trade, 156; on Westward campaign, 72, 75, 76
Ibn Battuta (scholar), 220–221, 238, 239–240, 256
Ibn Khaldun (scholar), 305–306
Ilkhanids, 19; alliance with Byzantines and Jochids, 185; collapse of, 209, 242–246, 250, 272; competition with Jochids, 140, 142, 178; fragmentation of, 20–21, 22; Nogay’s policies toward, 196, 197; truce with Mamluks, 213; war with Baraq, 175–176, 193
inheritance scheme, of Chinggis Khan: balance of power and sharing, 63–66, 92; Batu and Hungarian campaign, 86–89, 92; Batu and Russian campaign, 80–85, 85; changes to, 61–62; deaths of Jochi and Chinggis, 76–77; integration of Qipchaqs into Mongol Empire, 93–94, 130; Westward campaign (1221–1223), 67–76, 68
Iohanca (Franciscan friar), 14
Iraq, 142–143
Irzan (Ordaid leader), 221–223
‘Isa (beg), 219–220
Islam and Muslims: Berke’s conversion to and alliances, 139–140, 153, 159–160; coinage for, 134, 134–135; Güchülüq’s mistreatment of, 45–46; Jochid-built religious sites, 239–240, 308; in Mongol succession debates, 217; under Özbek’s rule, 221–223; as practiced in the Horde, 6, 14; as trading partners, 6. See also Sufism
Isma‘īl (commissioner of Kāsān), 46
Italy: trade with, 232, 235–236; Venetian contact with hordes, 153, 186–187, 189, 235–236, 247–249, 281
Iurii (grand prince), 227–228
Iurii Vsevolodovich (grand prince), 81–82
Ivan II (grand prince), 230
Ivan III (grand prince), 299–300
Ivan IV (tsar of Russia), 300, 302
Ivanics, Mária, 295
Ivan Ka
lita (grand prince), 229–231
‘Izz al Dīn (Seljuq sultan), 151–152, 153, 154
Jackson, Peter, 7
Jagiello, Vladislav (king of Poland), 286, 291
Jalāl al-Dīn (Jochid prince), 280
Jalāl al-Dīn (Khwarezmian shah), 60
Jalayir, 38, 166
Jalayirids, 261
Jamuqa (Mongol leader), 34, 36, 37
Janibek (Jochid khan), 245, 266; death of, 261; embargo and blockade against Genoese and Venetians, 247–249, 281; legacy of authoritarianism, 263; survived Black Death, 257
Janibek (Jochid leader), 294
Jebe (Mongol general), 147; campaign against Güchülüq, 46; campaign in northern China, 48; as commander, 44; death of, 74; seen as threat to Chinggis, 60; Westward campaign (1221–1223), 56, 67–74
Jelme (Mongol general), 44
Jin: as allies of Mongols, 40, 65; battles with Mongols, 32, 48–49, 77; divide-and-rule policies, 48; peace treaty with Tangut, 77; supported Chinggis against Merkit, 34
Jochi: biological ancestry of, 65–66; death of, 76–77; defeated Merkit and Naiman, 42–47; demotion of status as heir, 61–63; descendants of, 2, 102–103, 106, 171; as heir apparent to Chinggis Khan, 1–2, 12; led battles against Khwarezmian Empire, 52–53, 54, 56, 61; led battles in northern China, 48; marriages of, 36, 96, 102; territory of, 65–66; warriors apportioned to, 66; Westward campaign (1221–1223), 67–76
Jochids, 8; betrothal of daughters to non- nomads, 226, 228; Danubian horde, 223; dissolution of, 298; legacy of authoritarianism, 263–264; reforms under Özbek, 219–221; territory of, 148, 154–155, 158, 163; three major Jochid hordes (1270–1299), 168–169. See also specific leaders
Jochids and Toluids, internecine conflict in 1260s, 19; Berke and Middle Eastern campaign, 143; Berke’s Mamluk alliance, 139, 149–154, 161; fight for Jochid economic independence, 154–159; Hülegü and Middle Eastern campaign, 142–146; movements of war, 150; succession struggles and conflict, 146–149, 337n17; unity, 162–163
John of Plano Carpini (Franciscan friar), 196; on burial sites, 117–118; on forced settlements, 119; on hostage-taking, 105; on Mongol withdrawal from Hungary, 89; on respect among horde members, 124; on seasonal mobility, 125, 126; on tax collection, 133; on women’s camp tasks, 123
Julian (Dominican friar), 80
Juvaynī (historian), 24, 45, 57, 100–101, 114
Jūzjānī (historian), 117
Kashgarī, Mahmūd, al- (lexicographer), 31
Kashgarians, 45
Kazimierz (king of Poland-Lithuania), 300
Ked-Buqa (Mongol general), 144–146, 161
Kelmish Aqa (khatun), 199
Kereit, 31, 32–34, 36, 37, 101
keshig: based on Kereit guards, 37; fragmentation of, 266; organization of, 39–40, 41, 66, 103–106, 219; post-Toqtamish reforms to, 290; size of, 122
khanate, origin of term, 11
khatun, status of, 100–101
Khitan, 49
Khīwaqī, Shihāb al-Dīn al- (Khwarezmian lawyer), 55
Khwarezmian Empire, 43; battles with Mongols, 49–62, 52–53; Mongol-built religious sites in former territory of, 239–240
Khwarezmiyya, 60–61
Kiev, 136–137, 226, 269
Kim, Hodong, 7
Kingdom of Georgia, 68–69
Kinggut, 166
kinship control, rules of, 104
Kirakos Gandzaketsʿi (historian), 69
Kiray, 294
Kiyad, 268
Kiyad-Borjigid, 32, 37–38
kök orda. See Blue Horde
Kölgen (Chinggis’ son), 81
Könchek (Jochid prince), 195
Köten (Qipchaq chief), 73, 86, 87–88
kumis, 111–113
Kurds, 142–143
Lannoy, Guillebert de (diplomat), 291
Lasha, George (king of Georgia), 69
László IV (king of Hungary), 194–195
licensed merchants (ortaqs), as spies, 54
Little Ice Age, 265
Little Nogay Horde, 294
Lurs, 142–143
Malik Ashraf (ruler of Azerbaijan), 245
Mamai (beg), 21, 264–265, 268–269, 270–271, 281–282
Mamluks: allied with Toqtamish against Tamerlane, 284–287; allies of Jochids, 139, 149–154, 161, 185, 232–234; battles against Ked-Buqa, 144–146; trade with, 235; truce with Ilkhanids, 213
Mamluk Sultanate, 24, 144, 149, 151
Manghit, 22, 288–289
Manghit-Nogay, 292, 294–295, 306
maps: Batu’s campaigns against Qipchaqs, Russians, Bulgars, and Hungarians (1235–1242), 85; conquest of Khwarezmian Empire and Iran, 52–53; East Asian steppe, 28–29; flight of Merkit and Naiman, 43; fur-trading routes along the Volga River, 157; Horde under Toqtamish, 276–277; Mongol exchange (1300–1330), 210–211; Movements of Jochid hordes and yam routes, 129; Movements of the Berke-Hülegü war, 1261–1264, 150; three major Jochid hordes (1270–1299), 168–169; transformation of Horde into khanates, 296–297; possible transmission routes of the Black Death across central Eurasia, 255; Westward campaign (1221–1223), 68; White and Blue Hordes, 100
marriage: betrothal of Jochid daughters to non-nomads, 226, 228, 232–233; chief wives, 101, 102, 124, 161, 197, 198, 261, 262; dowries, 64; with multiple wives, 123; as political unions, 33, 36, 47; preferential groups for, 101–102
May, Timothy, 7
Mengli Giray (Jochid khan), 299–300
Merkit: assimilated into Mongols, 36; defeated by Jochi, 42, 43, 49; as Felt-Walled Tent, 31; fled and joined with Qipchaqs, 46–47; fled to Uighur area, 43; generational conflict with, 33–34
messenger network. See communication and supply network
Middle Eastern campaign, 142–146
Mikhail (prince of Tver), 227–228
Mikhail Alexandrovich (prince of Tver), 270–271
military structure: conscription exemption for clergy, 181; extreme advance troops, 56; garrison troops, 80; mounted archers, 66; tümen system, 38–39, 64, 130, 132; use of conscription, 132; Westward contingent, 56–57, 67–68. See also keshig; specific campaigns and commanders
Ming dynasty, China, 258–259
mobile cities, 120–125
mobile markets, 109
mobility, of hordes, 11, 23, 25, 109, 110, 120–123, 126
Moldavia, 187–188
Möngke, 83; as Batu’s relative, 79, 81; census- taking by, 135; death of, 144, 146; execution of relative who attempted coup, 97; as great khan, 141, 142, 143–144, 164, 199; kumis festival of, 112; maintained sharing system, 136
Möngke-Temür: alliances in southeastern Moldavia, 187–188; alliances with coastal powers, 186–189; death of, 191; descendants of, 218; governance of Russian principalities, 180–182; as khan, 19–20, 164, 171; marriages of, 197; power-balancing of, 174–178, 191, 193; prosperity as primary goal, 172–173, 177, 184
Mongol Empire: during 1200s, 64–65, 90–91; disintegration of, 250, 272–273; distinguished from Mongol exchange, 6–7; as integrative / holistic system, 7–9; registration systems, 132; treatment of subjects, 7
Mongol exchange: as bridge between Silk Road and Age of Exploration, 6; distinguished from Mongol Empire, 6–7; events leading to, 19–21; as form of geopolitical leadership, 178–190; Jochid civil war, 190–203; map of (1300–1330), 210–211; outcomes of, 3, 5; as product of power-balancing, 173–178; role of Blue Horde, 166–173
Mongol-led globalization, 20–21; collapse of the Ilkhanids, 209, 242–246; expansion of trade, 231–237; Özbek’s reforms, 217–224; preference for northern road, 206–209; rise of Moscow, 225–231, 272; and steppe urbanization, 20, 237–242
Mongols, as Felt-Walled Tent, 31
Morgan, David, 7
Moscow (principality): battles with Mamai, 21, 270; battles with Toqtamish, 282; Grandy Duchy of Muscovy, 10, 15; and Great Nogay Horde, 294; Horde seen as power source for, 300; inheritance from the Horde, 302; rise of, 225–231, 272
&nbs
p; Mstislav Mstislavich (prince of Galicia), 73, 74
Mstislav Romanovich (prince of Kiev), 73
Muhammad (Khwarezmian shah): expansionist conflict with Chinggis, 49–51, 54–57; in hiding, 59; involvement in Qara Khitai, 50–51; as shah of Khwarezmian Empire, 49–50; use of mercenary armies, 51
Muhammad Shībānī (Shibanid-Uzbek leader), 294
Munkh-Erdene, Lhamsuren, 12
Muqali (Mongol general), 48–49, 61, 77
Mussi, Gabriele de’, 248–249
Musta‘sim, al- (Abbasid caliph), 143
Naiman: as allies of Merkit, 33–34; defeated by Jochi, 36, 43, 49; early history of, 32–33; as Felt-Walled Tent, 31; fled to Qara Khitai, 43–46; influence on Mongols, 37
Najm al-Dīn al-Kubrā (Sufi leader), 159, 221
Nanguday, Amīr (beg), 267
Nāṣir Muḥammad, al- (Mamluk sultan), 232–234
Negüder (Mongol commander), 146, 149
Nestorian Christianity, 32, 45, 119, 161
New Sarai, 238–239, 264, 268, 287, 289, 308
nightguards, 103–104, 109
Niru’un, 31–32, 33
Nizari-Isma‘ili, 142
Nogay, 269; as beglerbeg, 219; civil war with Toqto’a, 20, 165, 197–205, 223–224; death of, 202–203; descendants of, 203; execution of father of, 147; impact on political culture of Horde, 204–205; as leader of western Jochid horde, 164; led battles against Byzantines, 154; marriages of, 185, 194, 197; as ruler of southeastern Moldavia, 187; territory of, 168–169
Nomuqan (Toluid prince), 177, 191
Novgorod: as economic center, 15, 131, 182–184, 230; governance system, 136–137; Mongols left untouched, 83; number of churches in, 242; succession struggles over, 227–228
oboqs, 30–32, 39, 42. See also specific groups
Ögödei: battles in Khwarezmian Empire, 61; battles in northern China, 48; death of, 89; descendants of purged by Toluids, 141; enthronement of, 98; as founder of Qaraqorum, 36, 118; generosity of, 114–115; implemented fiscal reforms and new coins, 133–134; marriage system of, 102; as successor of Chinggis, 12, 77, 96–97; sustainable population growth, 108; territory of, 65; warriors apportioned to, 66
Ögödeids, 8, 106, 173–174
Ölberli, 47, 75, 77
Öljeitü (ilkhan), 197, 213
The Horde Page 44
