The Poles had encamped between two wooded areas. Gustav surprised the predominantly Lithuanian army with a dawn attack. The woods prevented the Polish hetman, Sapieha, from using his usual tactic of outflanking the enemy with his excellent cavalry of 2,500 men including the Winged Hussars, some of whom had been at Kirkholm. Instead, Gustav sent companies of musketeers into the woods to enfield the camp and any formations advancing on the Swedes. He placed the bulk of his infantry squarely in front of the camp and butchered the Hussars as they charged into the well ordered ranks of pikemen, cutting them down with musket fire on three sides. The Polish-Lithuanian army was annihilated, 1,500 killed, three guns and 150 men captured along with the camp, wagon train and baggage. The Battle of Kirkholm had been avenged and Livonia secured as a Swedish province.
Gustav had led in his first pitched battle. He had tactical command without any of his generals present and again his army had performed magnificently. His new tactics, arms and formations had proven flexible and effective in an open field battle. All Europe began to take notice of Sweden’s young king and his remarkable new army.
While Gustav was securing Livonia, the situation of the Protestant princes of Germany was deteriorating. Imperial and Catholic League armies were steadily conquering the wayward states one by one. James I of England and George William of Brandenburg were so alarmed they both approached Gustav in 1624 proposing he head a league of Protestant states to oppose the emperor’s advance. Gustav replied that he would consider the proposal under certain conditions. First, the Dutch must be part of any coalition and an Anglo-Dutch fleet of at least 48 ships be assembled and made available to protect his Baltic and North Sea lines of communication. An army of 32,000 men would be provided and paid. A German harbor in the North Sea and the Baltic would be supplied and Danzig’s neutrality guaranteed. Bethlen Gabor, prince of Transylvania, would be part of the alliance and, finally, Gustav would be supreme commander of all coalition forces.
These conditions went beyond anything either ruler was prepared to deliver. So the Protestant cause turned elsewhere to look for a champion and found it in Christian IV of Denmark. Still smarting from his defeat at the conference of Sjöaryd and anxious to recoup his prestige, he made an agreement with James I in February 1625 to lead an army into Germany on condition England provide 7,000 men to add to his 5,000 and subsidize the expedition to the tune of £180,000 per year. It seemed a win for both parties. James got his campaign against the emperor in Germany and Christian trumped Gustav as leader of Protestant Europe.
A congress in The Hague was called for November 1625 to organize the proposed Protestant League. Christian’s project was taking shape. However, in September England and the Dutch signed the Treaty of Southampton agreeing to make war, not in Germany, but against Spain. Buckingham’s expedition against Cadiz ended in disaster, discouraging the English Parliament from providing funds for more of the king’s misadventures. The Hague Congress was poorly attended by even the German princes and the Great Protestant League died before it was even born. Christian was left to face the Imperial armies almost alone. Gustav must have watched all this with some satisfaction. His old nemesis had been seduced into the German quagmire and left badly exposed.
For Gustav, these events provided opportunity. Christian would be occupied in Germany. The Imperial advance might be slowed and Gustav was free to try to bring Sigismund to terms. He counseled with Oxenstierna on what the next move should be. His cousin was still not willing to concede his claim to the Swedish throne or enter a long term peace agreement even for the return of Livonia. More pressure must be applied. The choice of Prussia was obvious. Gustav would move the scene of operations from the Düna to the Vistula River, the life artery of Poland. Krakow, Warsaw and Thorn were all situated along this great river that connected them to the Baltic and the markets for their grain. If Gustav could cut this commercial avenue strangling the hinterland, the Polish parliament would force Sigismund to negotiate. Besides, Polish Prussia was prosperous. It had not suffered the decades of devastating warfare that Livonia had. There was an abundance of grain and cattle to feed his army. And Gustav would be doing his part to help the Protestant cause in Germany, keeping Sigismund occupied and, perhaps, forcing the emperor to divert resources.
As soon as the winter of 1626 broke, the Swedish king appeared off the East Prussian port of Pillau with 150 ships and 25,000 men. The town was located in territory belonging to Gustav’s brother-in-law George William of Brandenburg, from whom he expected assistance. George William, having earlier solicited the Swedish monarch’s help, now found himself caught between the hammer and anvil of the two cousins. His East Prussian duchy was completely surrounded by Polish territory, yet he had a Swedish army on his doorstep. He withheld active support, but did not hinder Gustav’s landing and advance into Polish Prussia, thus gaining the animosity of both monarchs.
Gustav marched around and then along the southern shore of the Frisches Haff heading for the Vistula River. Just inside Polish territory he came to Braunsberg, which pledged allegiance to the Swedish king. Further on, Elbing did the same. By the first of July he had taken possession of all Royal Polish Prussia except Danzig, Mewe and Dirschau. Elbing, Marienburg, and the Danziger Haupt would form his power base in Prussia, remaining in his camp for the rest of the war. Gustav sent for Alex Oxenstierna to cross the Baltic and organize a government for the new Swedish territory. He became chancellor-in-the-field and governor of Swedish Prussia with headquarters at Elbing.
The ease of conquest was because Prussia had, not so long ago, been under control of the Teutonic Knights and had become Protestant. It was with relief that the nobles and burghers traded a Catholic ruler for a Protestant protector.
By July 12 Gustav had crossed the Vistula and stormed Mewe. Dirschau was next to surrender. The Swedish king then turned his attention to Danzig, offering to leave the port a free city requiring only her pledge of neutrality and the expulsion of Sigismund’s embryonic war fleet. Danzig was a strong and prosperous city, one of the old Hanseatic League trading centers. Still, the city burghers had no desire go to war with the king who had reduced Riga. A neutrality might have been worked out but for Gustav’s impatience. As negotiations dragged on, the Swedish monarch became less and less accommodating, making increasingly undiplomatic demands. Danzig finally broke off talks, turning from a potential neutral to an enemy. As Gustav began preparations for a siege he received word that Sigismund was finally bringing up a major army to contest the Swedish invasion.
The Polish king had settled matters with the Ottoman Turks and could now bring his army north. Missing would be 3,000 Hussars under Field Hetman Stanislaw Koniecpolski that were drawn off to the Ukraine to handle a Tartar threat. Sigismund advanced through Poland with the major part of his army including infantry, guns and some 30,000 Hussars, Cossacks and Pancerna. As he reached the Vistula between Mewe and Dirschau, he sent a detachment to take Mewe garrisoned by a small Swedish force. Gustav turned from Danzig and hastened up the Vistula to rescue his troops at Mewe. He found the Polish army blocking his way. Sigismund had arranged his veteran troops on high ground anchoring one flank on the river and the other on a wooded area. On September 22 Gustav sent one of his generals, Heinrich von Thurn, to attack the wooded area while he deployed the rest of his troops opposite Sigismund’s position.
Thurn’s troops took the woods for a time, but were eventually driven out. Meanwhile, Sigismund sent his Hussars against the Swedish left. They quickly swept through Gustav’s cavalry, but were battered and driven back by his dug-in infantry. Both sides maneuvered for seven days, Gustav trying to get a relief force to Mewe and Sigismund blocking his movements. On the 29th the Poles made two general attacks using combined forces. All three mounted sections, Hussars, Pancerna and Cossacks, fought furiously. Again the Swedish cavalry was scattered, but the infantry held with the musketeers and regimental guns inflicting terrible losses. The Hussars were completely demoralized and it was only with difficulty tha
t Sigismund was able to get them to charge the Swedish infantry on October 1.
Again the battle was joined on an open plain with the Swedes advancing and being driven back. The Hussars charged carrying the first line of Swedish foot, but then were pummeled by a salvo from the second line and withdrew in disorder. Finally, a Swedish infantry unit gained a section of the high ground dominated, until then, by Polish forces. They immediately dug in and were able to hold their position until nightfall. By morning artillery had been moved to a position able to hit the Polish encampment. Sigismund lifted the siege of Mewe and withdrew. Prince Sladislov covered the retreat.
This battle must have been a shock to the Poles. For the first time since the days of Karl IX a major Polish army had been beaten by the Swedes. Sigismund had brought a large army, chosen the site of battle, and initiated most of the encounters. Yet, he lost. The cousins had much to consider as they settled into winter quarters. Sigismund returned to Warsaw leaving Field Hetman Koniecpoliski, who had joined him from the Ukraine campaign, in charge. Gustav returned to Stockholm in time for the birth of his daughter, Christina, who would be his only living heir. He left the army entrenched around Danzig and his navy maintaining a tight blockade. During the winter Koniecpoliski received a contingent of Imperial troops detached from Wallenstein’s armies pushing north toward the Baltic coast and into Danish Jutland. Like it or not Gustav was being drawn more and more directly into the German religious war.
Even before the spring thaw the Polish general began the 1627 campaign by attacking Putzig, a small town, part of the cordon around Danzig. Among the garrison captured were Commandant Nicholas Horn and 400 Swedish regulars. Koniecpoliski also intercepted 8,000 German mercenaries on their way to take service with the Swedish king. They were turned back promising not to join Gustav’s army for at least two years.
The Swedish king, meanwhile, was held up from his return by contrary winds. He arrived at Pillau again with 6,000 new recruits only to find that George William had fitted out 4,000 Prussian bluecoats and had them entrenched at Pillau in support of Sigismund. Completely exasperated with his brother-in-law, Gustav immediately attacked the works, captured the Prussians and made them part of his army. Arriving at Dirschau he found he now had 35,000 men under him including Swedes, mercenary Scots and Germans, and local recruits.
His first order of business was the siege of Danzig. While conducting inspections the king was hit in the hip by a musket ball. During his recuperation, Sigismund pushed into Livonia with a Polish army pressing de la Gardie enough so that Gustav was obliged to send Gustav Horn with reinforcements. Koniecpoliski maneuvered to within six miles of the Danzig siege works. As soon as Gustav had recovered sufficiently to sit a horse, he led his army into the field against the Polish hetman.
Again the Poles had the advantage of choosing the battle site near Dirschau. On August 17, 1627, the Swedes deployed on their front and as usual dug in. Koniecpoliski was a more canny general than his monarch and made no attempt to charge the Swedish earthworks. Instead he sent his cavalry forward to try to draw the Swedes into the open, but Gustav did not bite and after two hours the hetman recalled his horse.
This was the opportunity Gustav had been waiting for. As the retiring cavalry passed over a narrow causeway through marshy ground on the way back to their camp, the Swedish king launched his cavalry. The Polish Hussars turned to defend themselves, but were limited in their ability to maneuver because of the bog. The rear guard was cut down and the rest tried to flee as best they could through the marsh. Nearly 100 cavalrymen were killed or drowned in the swamp. Casualties would have been much higher except for the intervention of the Polish foot and horse which rushed to the site to cover the retreat. This was indeed a humiliating defeat for the Polish cavalry, to be driven from the field by Swedish horse.
On the second day of the battle Gustav, having numeric superiority, advanced on the Polish camp with his foot. The Polish cavalry was put to rout and the Swedish infantry was closing on the encampment when Gustav was hit in the shoulder close to the neck by a musket ball. The advance stopped while the army rallied around their general then pulled back carrying their king from the field. The deep wound put him in bed for three months, effectively ending the Swedish summer offensive.
At the same time Koniecpolski was contemplating a change in tactics. Dirschau was further proof to him that the Swedes were not going to be driven out by a major pitched battle. Indeed, the Poles had been bested in the open field battles with Gustav so far. It was obvious that Swedish infantry could more than hold its own against the vaunted Polish cavalry, which had even been beaten by the rapidly improving Swedish horse. Still the Polish hetman had the advantage in mobility. Polish cavalry overall was still superior to Swedish. Koniecpolski had at his disposal the highly mobile Cossack light cavalry, the dependable Panzers (Pancerna) and the excellent Hussar heavy cavalry. In numbers, his horse was far superior to Gustav’s. Sweden had the bigger army in Prussia, but most of it was tied down in garrison duty around the country and particularly in the siege of Danzig. The Polish general would avoid any open field battles and let his horse range across the countryside destroying crops, driving off stock and attacking small isolated towns and forts where he could quickly concentrate his cavalry in overwhelming numbers. He would starve and harass Gustav into leaving the country.
With the coming of the winter of 1626–27, the Swedish king returned to Stockholm to raise more troops. Danzig purchased 5,000 German mercenary infantry which they used to recover several Vistula river crossings between Marienburg and Dirschau, effectively cutting off Putzig by land.
Koniecpolski pulled his main army back to Graudenz where he built a strong encampment. When the Vistula and Nogat rivers had frozen over, he sent his Cossacks raiding through the countryside, burning grain stocks and driving off livestock. These tough, hardy and ruthless men were ideally suited for this kind of work. By the end of that winter hardly a village in the Grosser Werder had not been sacked by these pillaging marauders.
The Polish hetman besieged Putzig. Cut off by land and not able to get regular supplies by sea because of stormy weather, it fell in April opening a gap in the Danzig siege line. Also in that month the Poles caught 2,500 German mercenaries from Pomerania on their way to Hammerstein to join the Swedish army. Some were induced to join the Poles, the rest were turned back, then massacred by peasants in retaliation for savagery they had inflicted on the population earlier on their march in.
Both sides suffered much from disease and desertions. The Swedes lost 13 percent of their infantry and 20 percent of their cavalry. The Polish army was reduced similarly and had the additional problem of not being able to pay its mercenaries.
Gustav returned in May 1627 with 7,000 infantry and in June 1,700 cavalry arrived from Sweden. These troops were used in reinforcing the various garrisons and trying to waylay the Polish raiding parties.
Koniecpolski’s Flavian tactics were working. In July he was able to take Mewe, forcing Gustav to march south to recover this important stronghold and river crossing. In October he captured Wormditt, but otherwise he had little to show for the summer campaign season. Koniecpolski continued to avoid open battle; instead he raided and burned the Swedish supply bases.
On November 28 a fleet of ten Polish warships slipped out of Danzig Harbor and surprised the Swedish blockade vessels. The Swedish flagship was captured and another warship sunk. The Polish navy had its first victory, albeit a minor one and at the cost of almost 500 sailors.
The campaign season of 1628 was little different except it was a summer of heavy rains making army movement difficult and unpleasant. Gustav added more cavalry to try to suppress the Polish raids. He now had 8,870 foot and 6,100 horse, but the situation remained a stalemate. In Livonia Gustav Horn was holding his own against Sigismund. There, the war had been reduced to a conflict of attrition with no breakthroughs on either side.
The real action that summer was at the seaport of Stralsund, an old Hanseatic
League city and traditional ally of the Swedish Vasas. The Hapsburg-Catholic League armies had, by the spring of 1628, crushed Christian IV’s Danish forces and driven to the Baltic coast taking the port of Wismar. The Imperial general Wallenstein was given the title of High Admiral of the Baltic by the emperor. He called for Spanish ships from Dunkirk to come north to join the corps of his Baltic navy. Though he was able to take several more Baltic ports he recognized Stralsund was the key to Baltic domination. It was an excellent harbor and well positioned to threaten both Sweden and the Danish islands.
In February 1628 Wallenstein sent his chief lieutenant, Hans George von Arnim, to attack the city. He was able to take the island of Dänholm, which commanded the harbor. In April Wallenstein laid siege to the city. Gustav offered support to the city burghers, but the city council hoped to get help from other Hansa cities with whom they had treaties. The power of the old Hanseatic League, however, had long since been broken. Reval and Riga were now in Swedish hands. Lübeck, Settin and Rostack were still independent but feared less they should provoke Wallenstein. Wismar was already controlled by Imperial forces and Danzig was fighting for her life against Sweden.
Gustav had left behind a strong force in Sweden to man homeland defenses and come to the aid of Denmark or Stralsund if either seemed at the point of collapse. By May the port city knew she would receive no assistance from the other Hansa cities and was nearing defeat. The Swedish king sent word to Sweden to rush troops to the imperiled city, but it was Christian who arrived first.
Between May 25th and 28th detachments of Danish troops arrived, bolstering the spirits of the defenders. In early July a larger contingent of Christian’s soldiers landed. The crisis was past by the time the advance guard of Swedish troops arrived in late June. The main body landed in July, securing the city. Wallenstein raised his siege and retreated having lost some 12,000 men in his futile attempt to take the city.
Warrior Kings of Sweden Page 26
