In 1692 Louis XIV reached the peak of his war successes and there was a movement in Sweden to join his cause. Karl, however, squelched the pro–French drive and stuck with Oxenstierna’s policy of pro–Empire, pro–Dutch alliances that had kept Sweden out of war for several years.
Queen Ulrika Eleanora died in 1693. That same year the king announced the budget to be in surplus and declared extraordinary taxes would no longer be needed in peacetime. The Riksdag passed a resolution called the Declaration of Sovereignty confirming the Swedish monarchy to be absolute. Swedish law was rewritten to accommodate the rule of absolute sovereignty.
Karl XI had accomplished much of his agenda and he added a final triumph, his positioning Sweden as mediator to end the Nine Years War. France’s initial successes had been nullified as the war dragged on. In 1693 all belligerents accepted Karl as mediator for a general peace. Negotiations began in 1695 at Rijswick. Two years later in September 1697 a treaty of peace was concluded.
Karl XI did not live to see the culmination of his peace efforts, however. He died April 5, 1697, of stomach cancer. He was forty-two years old. He had accomplished much to strengthen his country’s position in the world. He had reestablished the monarchy as absolute. Sweden now had a powerful army and navy with a support system to maintain them. If not quite the dominant military power of a half century earlier, Sweden’s prestige was at a high point as mediator of the Nine Years War. Karl XI bequeathed to his son and heir a country sound financially and militarily. Sweden, at peace now for eighteen years, watched a rapidly evolving Europe and waited to see what path the new king would take.
Sweden maintained a commercial and territorial empire around the Baltic Sea. But the nation was surrounded by neighbors with far greater resources who gazed upon Sweden’s possessions with envy. Peace had been possible only because those countries respected Sweden’s king and his military might. A change in circumstance, particularly a replacement in leadership, was sure to invite probing to determine any shifts in Sweden’s position. A test of the new king’s resolve and abilities could not be far away.
23. Karl XII and the Great Northern War
Karl XI’s premature death left Sweden, once again, with a young monarch. At least this time he was not a child. Karl XII was fifteen and the only surviving male heir. He inherited an absolute sovereignty. The only question was one of maturity.
Karl XI had left a will in which he delayed his son’s majority until the age of eighteen. He designated his own mother, Hedvig Eleanora of Holstein-Gottorp (Karl X’s widow), regent along with a five-man council. The ambitious queen grandmother, in hopes of a long de facto reign, kept her grandson away from state business as much as possible, allowing him his youthful pursuits of hunting and reviewing the troops.
Voltaire, the French author and philosopher, writing only forty years after the incident, tells of Karl XII’s usurpation of his grandmother’s power. In November 1697, only a few months after his father’s death, Karl is reviewing several regiments with Privy Councilor Piper at his side. He is deep in thought and Piper asks, “‘May I take the liberty of asking what Your Majesty is contemplating?’
“‘I was thinking,’ replies the king, ‘that I feel myself worthy to command these brave fellows, and I am unwilling that either they or I should take orders from a woman.’”1
Piper seized the opportunity to elevate his position and contacted Count Axel Sparres to set in motion a plan advancing the king to his rightful seat of power. They convinced the five-man regency that it was in their best interests to cooperate. This group took the proposal to the queen who was caught by surprise. Before she could mount a defense, the Estates General was convened and a motion to empower Karl XII was passed so quickly no one had a chance to oppose it. Three days after his remark to Piper, Karl XII was king in fact as well as in name. Hedwig Eleanora’s power base collapsed and she was forced back into private life.
Voltaire records that “He [Karl XII] was crowned on December 24, 1697. He entered Stockholm on a chestnut horse with silver horseshoes carrying his scepter and wearing his crown to the acclamation of an entire people, worshipers of anything novel and invariably filled with great expectations of a young prince.”2
Karl XII was one of a whole new generation of monarchs mounting thrones across Europe. In 1701 the childless Charles II of Spain would die, initiating a scramble for his throne, and the War of the Spanish Succession began pitting France against England, the Netherlands, Prussia, Austria, the emperor and several German states. A year later, William III (last of the William and Mary dual monarchy) would die, passing the English crown to his sister-in-law Anne. Louis XIV would hang on for another fourteen years, but spent most of that time embroiled in the Spanish Succession War. Christian V died in August 1699 and was succeeded by his son Frederick IV of Denmark who carried on the Danish thirst for recovery of territories lost to Sweden. Frederick William of Brandenburg died in 1688 leaving the electorate to his son, Frederick III. But the new ruler obtained permission from Emperor Leopold I to be crowned Frederick I of Prussia-Brandenburg.
In Poland Karl X’s old antagonist, John Casimir, had abdicated in 1648 and been succeeded by Michael Korybut who was replaced in turn by John III Sobieski. It was Sobieski who was one of the key players in stemming a new tide of Turkish invasion of Europe. His passing in June 1696 opened the way for the election of Augustus II, elector of Saxony, to the Polish throne creating a formidable alliance and a potential problem for Sweden.
The biggest changes, however, were occurring in Russia. Alexis, whose Baltic ambitions had been thwarted by treaties and a preoccupation with the Ottomans and Tartars, had left his empire to two young sons and an ambitious daughter. Ivan V died in February 1696 leaving his half-brother, Peter, as sole Tsar—sister Sophia was hustled off to a nunnery. That same year Peter took the Turkish fortress of Azov at the mouth of the Don River. The twenty-four-year-old was already demonstrating his military abilities.
Peter made his famous tour of Western Europe in 1697–98 to learn of the West, make contacts and promote an alliance against the Turks. But when Austria, the Commonwealth and Venice settled with the Ottomans at Carlowitz in January 1699, Peter was not long in following suit. Now both Poland-Lithuania and Russia were free to turn their attention to the north and retake lost territory from an adolescent king.
Though Karl XI had certainly improved the country’s position financially and militarily, Sweden’s hold on her overseas provinces was still precarious. The reduktion which had been so successful in Sweden proved to be something else across the sea. The reduktion in the German provinces produced much less crown revenue than expected, but did stimulate opposition to Swedish rule.
In the Baltics it was even worse. The tangled history of land ownership made it impossible to judge fairly what lands should be returned to the crown. In Livonia 72.3 percent of the land wound up in crown hands compared to just 1.25 percent prior to the reduktion. In Estonia 53 percent of the estates were impacted. Local tolerance for Swedish rule received a setback. On top of all these negatives there were a number of European states still unhappy with Sweden for her neutrality during the Nine Years War. The war clouds were gathering and Sweden was in the eye of the storm.
The envying and resentful gazes turned toward Sweden saw in its youthful king an opportunity to settle old scores. Karl XII, though only a boy, had received all the advantages an heir apparent would ordinarily get in Europe. His instruction in languages was well grounded. He spoke and wrote German, French and Latin fluently and could converse in Finnish, Italian and Polish. Later he picked up Turkish as well. His Greek, however, was never more than rudimentary. His Lutheran instruction was not neglected and he remained devoutly religious all his life. He had a thorough knowledge of history both ancient and modern. He excelled in mathematics and its application to the martial arts. Artillery and fortification design became great interests of his. He had a complete knowledge of recent Swedish campaigns and battles. Karl could place
every regiment and describe their movements at the Battle of Lüzen from memory. His education was cut short by his father’s death. Philosophy and political science were to be addressed between his fifteenth and eighteenth years and therefore were never covered.
Karl loved hunting and other outdoor activities. He was never comfortable in the presence of women except those of his family. He was particularly attached to his older sister, Hedwig Sophia. He handled himself well when dealing with nobles and diplomats, but was most at ease with fellow officers. Small talk with the sergeant of the guard or the soldier in the field were more his style. Life in the open shared with his hardy comrades in arms was entirely to his liking. He was a born campaigner.
The death of Karl XII’s mother in 1693, when he was only eleven, was devastating. Ulrika Eleanora, the Danish princess, passed away after a couple of years of declining health involving fevers and progressive weakness. She refused to go abroad for treatment because she could not bear leaving her family and slipped away at thirty-six years of age. Karl XI fainted upon the news and Prince Karl took to bed with a fever. Sorrow hung over the whole country. Karl XII would lose both parents before he turned fifteen.
As a child Karl XII was precocious. As a boy-king he could be truculent and haughty, traits that disappeared with maturity. Not a natural student, Karl did continue to study languages and the military arts after becoming king. There was much to keep abreast of—technology was changing the face of war.
The two major developments in arms were the improved flintlock and the bayonet. The flintlock, now lighter and faster firing, had completely replaced the matchlock and wheel lock in the field. The combination of flintlock and bayonet made the infantry the queen of battle. The pikemen were no longer needed. A well drilled line of infantry could stop a cavalry charge in its tracks with the faster firing flintlock musket and bayonet. Training in reloading and maintaining orderly lines while maneuvering in combat became all important. The western European style of fighting was one of arranging both sides into uniform lines of infantry facing each other and banging away with musket fire until one side broke and fell back. Advances were made in an orderly fashion to the beat of drums and perhaps a fife or bugle. Artillery was added to the lines and battles became defensive in nature. If one side was dug in or in a fortified position, an open field attack by the other side was expensive in terms of losses of men.
Karl XII, however, had been raised with the Swedish style of aggressive warfare. Swedish infantry was equipped with the very best in flintlock muskets and their bayonets, having a better mount system, were superior to most western versions, but Karl retained the pikeman. A third of each battalion was made up of troops with this weapon. In addition, each infantryman carried a sword which Karl personally designed. The musket was to be fired at close range and the attack then carried home with cold steel. If the cavalry charge could be dismantled by musket fire and the bayonet, an assault by close packed infantry might not.
This style of warfare required a disciplined and well trained soldier. In this Karl had, perhaps, the finest in Europe. Voltaire says, “The Swedes are handsome, robust, agile and capable of enduring the hardest labor, hunger, and poverty. They are born soldiers, extremely proud, [and] courageous.”3
Eyewitness accounts tell of Swedish infantry attacking at a dead run. In many battles the Swedish foot did not even bother to fire, but crossed the last hundred yards first on the double, then at a run. The enemy might get off two or three artillery salvos and one or two musket volleys, but the Swedes would be among them with sword, pike and bayonet. Karl XII had taken his father’s tactic of an all-out cavalry assault with cold steel and applied it to his infantry.
Having secured control of the Swedish Empire, Karl XII settled back into his old ways, hunting, attending to military matters and indulging in balls, banquets and parties. It was rumored he also had a torrid affair with a lady of the court. He relied on Piper to run things, making him a count and elevating him to the position of prime minister in all but name. Karl did attend council meetings now and then, but exhibited an air of indifference and was inattentive. This led to indecisiveness in the government, but events on Sweden’s borders would soon force an end to this situation.
The opening salvo of the Great Northern War was fired by Frederick a month after Karl XI’s death. Denmark invaded Holstein-Gottorp and razed the fortress at Schleswig built by the duchy to defend itself against Danish aggression. The Swedish Regency did nothing but wring its hands, encouraging the view that Sweden was now impotent.
Unbeknownst to Sweden, diplomacy by her enemies had for some time been building coalitions against her. In March 1698 the Danes and Saxons had signed a defensive pact. Frederick IV’s ascension in 1699 gave new vigor to the Danish reconquest appetites, but the country was not foolish enough to commit to a war without allies. The western European powers were embroiled in the international politics of the Spanish Succession so Frederick turned to the east. In April 1699 Russia and Denmark had signed a defensive agreement to be effective upon Russia’s peace with Turkey. Frederick gained the crown in August and in September he signed a new defensive treaty with Saxony in Dresden. Meanwhile Augustus II also signed a treaty with Peter that same month which committed Russia to an invasion of Ingria in 1700. Frederick had his coalition. Sweden’s old enemies Saxony-Poland-Lithuania, Denmark and Russia were poised for the kill. Sweden and her new king were quite alone.
The Råd dithered knowing trouble was brewing, but not understanding the extent of the coming disaster. Karl seemed quite unconcerned until one day while attending the council, he suddenly stood up and, according to Voltaire, made a short speech.
“‘Gentlemen,’ he said with an air of gravity, self-confidence and determination, ‘I have resolved never to fight an unjust war, nor finish a lawful one except with the destruction of my enemies. My mind is made up; I shall attack the first to reveal his intentions, and when I have beaten him, I hope I shall give a little fright to the rest.’”4
Voltaire says Karl XII, from that point on, completely changed his ways. His ostentatious dress was exchanged for a private’s uniform. He renounced women—Karl would never marry—and strong drink. In camp he did not wear a wig and was easily recognized, standing out among his generals with their silk, lace and pronounced wigs, the fashion of the day. Karl ate what his men ate and slept on the same style cots. He would live simply and share the soldier’s life with his troops. His conversion was none too soon.
In February 1700 Saxon troops under Generals Flemming and Carlowitz crossed the border into Livonia and stormed Fort Kobron without a declaration of war. The Saxons then attacked Riga. Seventy-eight-year-old Count Erik Dahlberg, the Swedish commander at Riga, sent a courier around the Gulf of Bothnia, the sea being ice packed, to inform the king. Word reached Karl in March. It was no surprise when the young monarch next learned that Denmark had invaded Holstein-Gottorp for a second time. The Great Northern War was now a shooting war.
Karl gave the word to mobilize. The call-up system so carefully designed and organized by his father went into action. Coats of the Swedish soldier were donned by men from one end of the country to the other including new units such as the Regiment of Scanian Dragoons made up of troops from the country estates and manors of Skåne, Halland and Blekinge. Companies were organized, then marched to assembly points to become battalions and finally regiments, the Dalarnian, Västermanland and Uppland infantry regiments. Well-equipped cavalry units formed up, the West Gotlander, Smålander, East Gotlander and Household Regiment of Horse. Also called up were the North and South Scanian Cavalry Regiments. There were the king’s special troops, His Majesty’s Drabants of Köping and Arboga that Karl had selected and trained himself. These 200 men acted as his staff. All officers, they could be sent to take command of units with fallen or incapacitated leaders. There were the Guards from Stockholm, regiments of double strength that always accompanied the king. Last to arrive were the tough troops from Västerbotten, coming
350 miles by sleigh to reach final assembly points. Karl had his army, an army constructed by his father. It was, perhaps, the finest army in the world. But did the teenage king have the ability to make use of it?
In the overseas provinces the same mobilization was taking place. As Finnish and Estonian troops formed up they were sent south to aid Riga. Karl dispatched a contingent to General Nils Gyllenstierna, Swedish governor of Bremen, to join operations against the Danes in Holstein-Gottorp. Eight thousand troops were sent to Pomerania adjacent to the threatened duchy.
Danish troops had already taken Gottorp Castle and were besieging the city of Tønning. Frederick himself left for the front to witness the final conquest. Troops from Saxony, Brandenburg-Prussia, Wolfen-Büttel and Hesse-Kassel were marching to reinforce the Danes and get in on the kill.
However, England and the Netherlands were also guarantors of the Treaty of Altona along with Sweden and now they began to act. The United Provinces sent three regiments to Holstein-Gottorp and Hamburg joined with a small force. England and the Dutch each dispatched a fleet to the Baltic. Karl had some allies and he made use of them.
The garrison at Tønning, holding on stubbornly, was commanded by the Swedish general Johan Gabriel Baner. Gyllenstierna brought a small Swedish force up from the south to assist. The Dutch and Hamburg army was commanded by George of Hanover (later to be King George I of England), also moved north. The allied army forced the Danes to raise the siege of Tønning.
The combined English-Dutch fleet finally arrived at Gothenburg. Karl put to sea with his magnificent Swedish fleet from Karlskrona. The Danes, however, had placed their fleet in the main channel of the Sound with orders to prevent the two fleets from combining at all costs. There was an alternative route, but it lay through a hazardous strait used only by shallow draft boats. Karl ordered his admiral, Hans Wachtmeister, architect of the great fleet, to pass through the strait. Wachtmeister hesitated, afraid of losing some of his fine ships. Karl railed and the admiral finally complied on July 5. Thirteen of the largest ships were left behind and five ships ran aground, but the main body passed the Sound and joined the allied fleet. The Danish navy, now badly outnumbered, scurried into Copenhagen Harbor where it could hold off an attack.
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