Still honored is Karl Linnaeus (1707–1778), who developed the basis for the Latin naming system use in botany today. He made his living as a physician, but traveled through Lappland, England, the Netherlands, France and his native Gotland and Öland studying and classifying plant life. Born in Rashult, Småland, Linnaeus wrote widely in the field of botany and is still considered one of the world’s great naturalists.
There was Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772), a physicist, astronomer, geologist, paleontologist, mineralogist, physiologist and psychologist, who was knighted by Queen Ulrica Eleonora in 1719 for designing a machine to convey boats overland from one waterway to another. He wrote extensively on a variety of scientific and engineering subjects. In later years he turned to religion writing, Heaven and Hell and The Divine Love and Wisdom.
A close friend of Swedenborg was Christopher Polhem (1661–1751), considered the father of Swedish engineering. It was Polhem who had invented the screw device to adjust the trajectory of artillery used so successfully in the last years of the Great Northern War. At the behest of Karl XI, he built a winchlike device to elevate ore from the copper mine at Falun. Versions of the machine were later used in various situations and industries throughout Sweden. He designed and built an automated mass production factory in Stjärnsund driven by water power. This facility, honored by Karl XII, produced a variety of items, but in 1734 a fire burned most of the plant. The factory continued to make clocks and padlocks (Polhem locks), a device he invented.
Anders Celsius (1701–1744), inventor of the centigrade thermometer used throughout the world today, was primarily an astronomer and atmospheric scientist. He designed the Uppsala observatory and studied the aurora borealis.
Along with achievements in the fields of literature, architecture, the arts and sciences, Sweden was constantly struggling to develop a government that would give all the people a voice. During this period the Riksdag had come to be one of the most broad-based national assemblies in Europe. Particularly important was the Estates Assembly of Vesteres (1527) where 4 bishops, 15 members of the Råd, 129 nobles, 32 burgesses, 14 miners and 104 peasant representatives gathered.
The Form of Government, drawn up under Oxenstierna’s supervision in 1634 with its definition of the composition, powers and duties of each of the administrative departments of government, is the earliest known example of a written constitution, a precursor of the Constitution of the United States written a century and a half later.
Sweden’s accomplishments were remarkable and many faceted during her age of greatness though the requirements of war undoubtedly retarded progress in these other fields. The Durants summed it up best perhaps:
Sweden in this period had a remarkable succession of strong kings; for half a century (1654–1718) they were the wonder of the world, rivaled only by Louis XIV. Had they possessed a larger background of resources they might have equaled the power of France, and the Swedish people, inspired by the achievements of two Gustavs, three Karls, and their great ministers, might have financed a cultural flowering commensurate with their victories and aspirations. But the wars that exalted their power exhausted their wealth, and Sweden emerged from this age heroic but consumed. It is astonishing that a nation so weak (in resources and population) should have accomplished so much.1
Sweden would remain a respected military force for some time to come and a contributor to European culture. She would supply energetic and skilled sons and daughters for the building of an American civilization, and lead Europe in industrialization and governmental reform. But never again would a Swedish warrior king ride at the head of his army producing brilliant victories, crushing all before him, extending Swedish domains and carving a position of supremacy in Northern Europe.
Notes
Chapter 3
1. Andrew A. Stomberg, History of Sweden (New York: Macmillan, 1931), p. 229.
Chapter 4
1. Ingvar Andersson, A History of Sweden (London: William Coves and Sons, 1956), p. 122–3.
Chapter 5
1. Franklin D. Scott, Sweden: The Nation’s History (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1988) p. 122.
2. Will Durant, The Story of Civilization, Vol. 6, Reformation (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1985), p. 624–5.
Chapter 6
1. Vilhelm Molberg, A History of the Swedish People, Vol. II (New York: Dorset Press, 1989), p. 236.
2. Ivan Svalenius, Gustav Vasa (Stockholm: Wahlström & Widstrand, 1963), pp. 236–238.
3. Molberg, p. 244.
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid., p. 263.
6. Nils Ahnlund, Gustav Adolf the Great. Translated by Michael Roberts. (Princeton: Princeton University Press and The American-Scandinavian Foundation, 1940), p. 143.
Chapter 10
1. Michael Roberts, The Early Vasas (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968), p. 360.
2. Ibid.
Chapter 12
1. Andrew A. Dow, History of Sweden (New York: Macmillan, 1931), p. 369.
2. Nils Ahnlund, Gustav Adolf the Great. Translated by Michael Roberts. (Princeton: Princeton University Press and The American-Scandinavian Foundation, 1940), p. 26.
3. Ibid., p. 29.
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid., p. 35.
8. Ibid., p. 43.
Chapter 13
1. Michael Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus (London and New York: Longman, 1992), p. 25.
2. Ibid., p. 25.
3. Ibid., p. 25.
4. Ibid., p. 25.
5. Bernard Pares, A History of Russia (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1953), p. 149.
6. Ibid, p. 150.
7. Gustaf II Adolf (http://members.tripod.com/strv102r/gustaf_ii_adolf3.htm), p. 2.
Chapter 15
1. Martin Veibull and Magnus Höjer, Sveriges Historia, Vol. 4 (Stockholm: Hjalmar Linnströms Förlag, 1881), p. 188.
2. Michael Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus (London and New York: Longman, 1992), p. 72.
3. Ibid., p. 71.
4. Nils Ahnlund, Gustav Adolf the Great. Translated by Michael Roberts. (Princeton: Princeton University Press and The American-Scandinavian Foundation, 1940), p. 262.
5. Ibid., p. 264.
6. Ibid., p. 283.
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid., p. 284.
9. Roberts, p. 139.
Chapter 16
1. Michael Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus (London and New York: Longman, 1992), p. 177.
Chapter 17
1. Georgina Masson, Queen Christina (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1969), p. 25.
2. Ibid., p. 27.
Chapter 19
1. Georgina Masson, Queen Christina (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1969), p. 21.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid., p. 40.
5. Faith Compton Mackenzie, The Sibyl of the North (London: Cossell, 1931), p. 14.
6. Curt Weibull, Christina of Sweden (Göteborg: Elanders Boktryckeri Aktiebolag, 1966), p. 19.
7. Ibid., p. 22.
8. Ibid., p. 28.
9. Ibid., p. 76.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid., p. 77.
12. Ibid., p. 87.
Chapter 21
1. C.A. Weslager, New Sweden on the Delaware (Wilmington, DE: Middle Atlantic Press, 1988), p. 21.
2. John Munroe, Colonial Delaware: A History (New York: KTO Press, 1978), p. 3.
3. Ibid., p. 13.
4. Attributed to Benjamin Franklin at the signing of the Declaration of Independence. The Electric Franklin, http://www.ushistory.org.
Chapter 23
1. Voltaire, Lion of the North (East Brunswick, NJ: Associated University Press, 1981), p. 29.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid., p. 22.
4. Ibid., p. 42.
Chapter 24
1. R.M. Hatton, Charles XII of Sweden (New York: Weybright and Talley, 1968), p. 179.
2. Frans G. Bengtsson, The Life of Charles
XII (New York: Macmillan, 1960), p. 132.
Chapter 26
1. Will Durant and Ariel Durant, The Story of Civilization, Vol. 8, The Age of Louis XIV (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991), p. 389.
2. Voltaire, Lion of the North (East Brunswick, NJ: Associated University Press, 1981), p. 19.
Epilogue
1. Will Durant and Ariel Durant, The Story of Civilization, Vol. 8, The Age of Louis XIV (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991), p. 365.
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