3. ARCHAIC HOMO SAPIENS (NEANDERTALS)
1. N. Wade, “Genetic Data and Fossil Evidence Tell Differing Tales of Human Origins,” New York Times, July 27, 2012; J.-J. Hublin, “How to Build a Neandertal,” Science 344 (2014): 1338–1339; A. Gibbons, “Who Were the Denisovans?,” Science 333 (2011): 1084–1087; E. Culotta, “Likely Hobbit Ancestors Lived 600,000 Years Earlier,” Science 352 (2016): 1260–1261; A. Gibbons, “A Crystal-Clear View of an Extinct Girl’s Genome,” Science 337 (2012): 1028–1029; M. Meyer, M. Kircher, M.-T. Gansauge et al., “A High-Coverage Genome Sequence from an Archaic Denisovan Individual,” Science 338 (2012): 222–226; A. Cooper and C. B. Stringer, “Did Denisovans Cross Wallace’s Line?,” Science 342 (2013): 321–323.
2. A. W. Briggs, J. M. Good, R. E. Green et al., “Targeted Retrieval and Analysis of Five Neandertal mtDNA Genomes,” Science 325 (2009): 318–320.
3. Richard G. Klein and Blake Edgar, The Dawn of Human Culture: A Bold New Theory on What Sparked the “Big Bang” of Human Consciousness (New York: Wiley, 2002), 272.
4. Brian Fagan, Cro-Magnon: How the Ice Age Gave Birth to the First Modern Humans (New York: Bloomsbury, 2010), 47.
5. K. Bouton, “If Cave Men Told Jokes, Would Humans Laugh?,” New York Times, December 28, 2011; D. S. Adler, K. N. Wilkinson, S. Blockley et al., “Early Levallois Technology and the Lower to Middle Paleolithic Transition in the Southern Caucasus,” Science 345 (2014): 1609–1613; Carl Zimmer, Evolution: The Triumph of an Idea (New York: HarperCollins, 2001), 301; M. Soressi, S. P. McPherron, M. Lenoir et al., “Neandertals Made the First Specialized Bone Tools in Europe,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 110 (2013): 14186–14190. See also Christopher Stringer and Clive Gamble, In Search of the Neanderthals (London: Thames and Hudson, 1993). The method used by Neandertals for making stone tools is usually referred to as the Levallois technique.
6. Fagan, Cro-Magnon, 80; D. Bickerton, “From Protolanguage to Language,” in The Speciation of Modern Homo sapiens, ed. Tim J. Crow (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 103–120.
7. W. Roebroeks, M. J. Sier, T. K. Nielsen et al., “Use of Red Ochre by Early Neandertals,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 109 (2012): 1889–1894; J. Zilhão, D. E. Angelucci, E. Badal-Garcia et al., “Symbolic Use of Marine Shells and Mineral Pigments by Iberian Neandertals,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 107 (2010): 1023–1028; M. Peresani, M. Vanhaeren, E. Quaggiotto et al., “An Ochered Fossil Marine Shell from the Mousterian of Fumane Cave, Italy,” PLoS ONE 8 (2013): e68572; E. Morin and V. Laroulandie, “Presumed Symbolic Use of Diurnal Raptors by Neanderthals,” PLoS ONE 7 (2012): e32856; C. Finlayson, K. Brown, R. Blasco et al., “Birds of a Feather: Neanderthal Exploitation of Raptors and Corvids,” PLoS ONE 7 (2012): e45927; M. Peresani, I. Fiore, M. Gala et al., “Late Neandertals and the Intentional Removal of Feathers as Evidenced from Bird Bone Taphonomy at Fumane Cave 44 ky BP., Italy,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 108 (2011): 3888–3893; J. Rodriguez-Vidal, F. d’Errico, F. G. Pacheco et al., “A Rock Engraving Made by Neanderthals in Gibraltar,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 111 (2014): 13301–13306; M. Romandini, M. Peresani, V. Laroulandie et al., “Convergent Evidence of Eagle Talons Used by Late Neanderthals in Europe: A Further Assessment on Symbolism,” PLoS ONE 9 (2014): e101278.
8. Stringer and Gamble, In Search of the Neanderthals, 94; Kenneth L. Feder, The Past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human History (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 2000), 161; Chris Stringer, Lone Survivors: How We Came to Be the Only Humans on Earth (New York: Times, 2012), 153–154; Robert J. Wenke and Deborah I. Olszewski, Patterns in Prehistory: Mankind’s First Three Million Years (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 162; Gregory Curtis, The Cave Painters: Probing the Mysteries of the World’s First Artists (New York: Anchor, 2006), 34.
9. A. Belfer-Cohen and E. Hovers, “In the Eye of the Beholder: Mousterian and Natufian burials in the Levant,” Current Anthropology 33 (1992): 463–471; Ian Tattersall, Becoming Human: Evolution and Human Uniqueness (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1998), 161, 162–163; Fagan, Cro-Magnon, 77.
10. R. N. Spreng, R. A. Mar, and S. N. Kim, “The Common Neural Basis of Autobiographical Memory, Prospection, Navigation, Theory of Mind, and the Default Mode: A Quantitative Meta-Analysis,” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 21 (2009): 489–510; Nicholas Humphrey, The Inner Eye: Social Intelligence in Evolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 71.
11. C. D. Frith, “Schizophrenia and Theory of Mind (Editorial),” Psychological Medicine 34 (2004): 385–389.
12. D. J. Povinelli and C. G. Prince, “When Self Met Other,” in Self-Awareness: Its Nature and Development, ed. Michael Ferrari and Robert J. Sternberg (New York: Guilford, 1998), 62; C. D. Frith and U. Frith, “Interacting Minds—a Biological Basis,” Science 286 (1999): 1692–1695; J. I. M. Carpendale and C. Lewis, “Constructing an Understanding of Mind: The Development of Children’s Social Understanding Within Social Interaction,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 27 (2004): 79–151. See also Robin Dunbar, The Human Story: A New History of Mankind’s Evolution (London: Faber and Faber, 2004), 43. Additional evidence that the acquisition of a theory of mind can be improved by training comes from studies showing that reading literary fiction improves theory of mind skills in adults; see D. C. Kidd and E. Castano, “Reading Literary Fiction Improves Theory of Mind,” Science 342 (2013): 377–380.
13. A. Y. Hakeem, C. C. Sherwood, C. J. Bonar et al., “Von Economo Neurons in the Elephant Brain,” Anatomical Record 292 (2009): 242–248.
14. A. Jolly, “The Social Origin of Mind (Book Review),” Science 317 (2007): 1326–1327.
15. See, for example, Jane Goodall, The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986), 36–38, 578–583; and Barbara J. King, Evolving God: A Provocative View on the Origins of Religion (New York: Doubleday, 2007), 36.
16. Zimmer, Evolution, 271; Dunbar, The Human Story, 59; M. Tomasello, J. Call, and B. Hare, “Chimpanzees Understand Psychological States—the Question Is Which Ones and to What Extent,” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 7 (2003): 153–156; Povinelli and Prince, “When Self Met Other,” 93. For useful summaries of this debate, see also D. J. Povinelli and J. M. Bering, “The Mentality of Apes Revisited,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 11 (2002): 115–119; D. J. Povinelli and T. M. Preuss, “Theory of Mind: Evolutionary History of a Cognitive Specialization,” Trends in Neurosciences 18 (1995): 418–424; D. C. Penn and D. J. Povinelli, “On the Lack of Evidence That Non-Human Animals Possess Anything Remotely Resembling a ‘Theory of Mind,’ ” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 362 (2007): 731–744; J. B. Silk, S. F. Brosnan, J. Vonk et al., “Chimpanzees Are Indifferent to the Welfare of Unrelated Group Members,” Nature 437 (2005): 1357–1359. See also a recent discussion of this issue in Thomas Suddendorf, The Gap: The Science of What Separates Us from Other Animals (New York: Basic, 2013), 126–132.
17. Richard M. Restak, The Modular Brain (New York: Touchstone, 1994), 107.
18. A. M. Leslie, “The Theory of Mind Impairment in Autism: Evidence for a Modular Mechanism of Development?,” in Natural Theories of Mind: Evolution, Development and Simulation of Everyday Mindreading, ed. Andrew Whiten (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1991), 63–77; Simon Baron-Cohen, Mindblindness: An Essay on Autism and Theory of Mind (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1997).
19. Y. Yang, A. L. Glenn, and A. Raine, “Brain Abnormalities in Antisocial Individuals: Implications for the Law,” Behavioral Sciences and the Law 26 (2008): 65–83; M. Macmillan, “Inhibition and the Control of Behavior: From Gall to Freud via Phineas Gage and the Frontal Lobes,” Brain and Cognition 19 (1992): 72–104; E. L. Hutton, “Personality Changes After Leucotomy,” Journal of Mental Science 9
3 (1947): 31–42; Jack El-Hai, The Lobotomist (New York: Wiley, 2005), 168.
20. C. B. Stringer, “Evolution of Early Humans,” in The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution, ed. Steve Jones, Robert D. Martin, and David R. Pilbeam (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 245; MacDonald Critchley, The Parietal Lobes (New York: Haffner, 1969), 54.
21. Percival Bailey and Gerhardt von Bonin, The Isocortex of Man (Champagne: University of Illinois Press, 1951), 218; R. M. Carter, D. L. Bowling, C. Reeck et al., “A Distinct Role of the Temporal-Parietal Junction in Predicting Socially Guided Decisions,” Science 337 (2012): 109–111; G. D. Pearlson, “Superior Temporal Gyrus and Planum Temporale in Schizophrenia: A Selective Review,” Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry 21 (1997): 1203–1229.
22. N. Makris, D. N. Kennedy, S. McInerney et al., “Segmentation of Subcomponents Within the Superior Longitudinal Fascicle in Humans: A Quantitative, In Vivo, DT-MRI Study,” Cerebral Cortex 15 (2005); J. K. Rilling, M. F. Glasser, T. M. Preuss et al., “The Evolution of the Arcuate Fasciculus Revealed with Comparative DTI,” Nature Neuroscience 11 (2008): 426–428.
23. R. Saxe and A. Wexler, “Making Sense of Another Mind: The Role of the Right Temporo-Parietal Junction,” Neuropsychologia 43 (2005): 1391–1399; J. S. Rabin, A. Gilboa, D. T. Stuss et al., “Common and Unique Neural Correlates of Autobiographical Memory and Theory of Mind,” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 22 (2010): 1095–1111; J. Decety and J. Grèzes, “The Power of Stimulation: Imagining One’s Own and Other’s Behavior,” Brain Research 1079 (2006): 4–14; Martin Brüne and Ute Brüne-Cohrs, “Theory of Mind—Evolution, Ontogeny, Brain Mechanisms and Psychopathology,” Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 30 (2006): 437–455. See also R. Saxe and N. Kanwisher, “People Thinking About People: The Role of the Temporo-Parietal Junction in ‘Theory of Mind,’ ” NeuroImage 19 (2003): 1835–1842.
24. John S. Allen, The Lives of the Brain: Human Evolution and the Organ of Mind (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009), 97; Spreng et al., “The Common Neural Basis”; L. Carr, M. Iacoboni, M.-C. Dubeau et al., “Neural Mechanisms of Empathy in Humans: A Relay from Neural Systems for Imitation to Limbic Areas,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 100 (2003): 5497–5502; K. N. Ochsner, J. Zaki, J. Hanelin et al., “Your Pain or Mine? Common and Distinct Neural Systems Supporting the Perception of Pain in Self and Other,” Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 3 (2008): 144–160.
25. D. Falk, C. Hildebolt, K. Smith et al., “The Brain of LB1, Homo florensiensis,” Science 308 (2005): 242–245; C. D. Frith and U. Frith, “Interacting Minds—a Biological Basis,” Science 286 (1999): 1692–1695; C. D. Frith and U. Frith, “The Neural Basis of Mentalizing,” Neuron 50 (2006): 531–534; P. C. Fletcher, F. Happé, U. Frith et al., “Other Minds in the Brain: A Functional Imaging Study of ‘Theory of Mind’ in Story Comprehension,” Cognition 57 (1995): 109–128; D. T. Stuss, G. G. Gallup Jr., and M. P. Alexander, “The Frontal Lobes Are Necessary for ‘Theory of Mind,’ ” Brain 124 (2001): 279–286.
26. G. Rizzolatti and L. Craighero, “The Mirror-Neuron System,” Annual Review of Neuroscience 27 (2004): 169–192; Decety, and Grèzes, “The Power of Stimulation”; Andrew Shryock and Daniel L. Smail, Deep History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011), 63.
27. Jesse Bering, The Belief Instinct: The Psychology of Souls, Destiny, and the Meaning of Life (New York: Norton, 2011), 190; Ara Norenzayan, Big Gods: How Religion Transformed Cooperation and Conflict (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013); Dominic Johnson, God Is Watching You: How the Fear of God Makes Us Human (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016).
28. Bering, The Belief Instinct, 190, 192.
29. W. M. Gervais, “Perceiving Minds and Gods: How Mind Perception Enables, Constrains, and Is Triggered by Belief in Gods,” Perspectives on Psychological Science 8 (2013): 380–394.
30. D. Kapogiannis, A. K. Barbey, M. Su et al., “Cognitive and Neural Foundations of Religious Belief,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 106 (2009): 4876–4881.
4. EARLY HOMO SAPIENS
1. J. R. Stewart and C. B. Stringer, “Human Evolution out of Africa: The Role of Refugia and Climate Change,” Science 335 (2012): 1317–1321; Chris Stringer, Lone Survivors: How We Came to Be the Only Humans on Earth (New York: Times, 2012), 130.
2. V. Mourre, P. Villa, and C. S. Henshilwood, “Early Use of Pressure Flaking on Lithic Artifacts at Blombos Cave, South Africa,” Science 330 (2010): 659–662; P. Mellars, “Archeology and the Origins of Modern Humans: European and African Perspectives,” in The Speciation of Modern Homo sapiens, ed. Tim J. Crow (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 37, 39; C. S. Henshilwood, J. C. Sealy, R. Yates et al., “Blombos Cave, Southern Cape, South Africa: Preliminary Report on the 1992–1999 Excavations of the Middle Stone Age Levels,” Journal of Archaeological Science 28 (2001): 421–448; L. Wadley, C. Sievers, M. Bamford et al., “Middle Stone Age Bedding Construction and Settlement Patterns at Sibudu, South Africa,” Science 334 (2011): 1388–1391; M. Balter, “South African Cave Slowly Shares Secrets of Human Culture,” Science 332 (2011): 1260–1261; S. McBrearty and A. S. Brooks, “The Revolution That Wasn’t: A New Interpretation of the Origin of Modern Human Behavior,” Journal of Human Evolution 39 (2000): 453–563; M. Lombard, “Quartz-Tipped Arrows Older Than 60 Ka: Further Use-Trace Evidence from Sibudu, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa,” Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011): 1918–1930.
3. Wadley et al., “Middle Stone Age Bedding Construction.”
4. M. Balter, “First Jewelry? Old Shell Beads Suggest Early Use of Symbols,” Science 312 (2006): 173; M. Vanhaeren, F. d’Errico, C. Stringer et al., “Middle Paleolithic Shell Beads in Israel and Algeria,” Science 312 (2006): 1785–1788; C. S. Henshilwood, F. d’Errico, K. L. van Niekerk et al., “A 100,000-Year-Old Ochre-Processing Workshop at Blombos Cave, South Africa,” Science 334 (2011): 219–222; F. d’Errico, M. Vanhaeren, N. Barton et al., “Additional Evidence on the Use of Personal Ornaments in the Middle Paleolithic of North America,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 106 (2009): 16051–16056; E. A. Powell, “In Style in the Stone Age,” Archaeology (July–August 2013): 18.
5. C. S. Henshilwood, F. d’Errico, R. Yates et al., “Emergence of Modern Human Behavior: Middle Stone Age Engravings from South Africa,” Science 295 (2002): 1278–1280; M. Balter, “Early Start for Human Art? Ochre May Revise Timeline,” Science 323 (2009): 569; Stringer, Lone Survivors, 157.
6. R. Kittler, M. Kayser, and M. Stoneking, “Molecular Evolution of Pediculus humanus and the Origin of Clothing,” Current Biology 13 (2003): 1414–1417; “Is This a Man?,” Economist, December 24, 2005, 7; J. Travis, “The Naked Truth? Lice Hint at a Recent Origin of Clothing,” Science News Online 164 (2003): 118, www.sciencenews.org/articles/20030823/fob7.asp.
7. Carl Zimmer, Evolution: The Triumph of an Idea (New York: HarperCollins, 2001), 305.
8. C. Zimmer, “How We Got Here: DNA Points to a Single Migration from Africa,” New York Times, September 22, 2016; Brian Fagan, People of the Earth: An Introduction to World Prehistory (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2004), 104; A. Lawler, “Did Modern Humans Travel out of Africa Via Arabia?,” Science 331 (2011): 387.
9. A. Gibbons, “A New View of the Birth of Homo sapiens,” Science 331 (2011): 392–394.
10. G. Hadjashov, T. Kivisild, P. A. Underhill et al., “Revealing the Prehistoric Settlement of Australia by Y Chromosome and mtDNA Analysis,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 104 (2007): 8726–8730; N. Wade, “From DNA Analysis, Clues to a Single Australian Migration,” New York Times, May 8, 2007; Robert J. Wenke and Deborah I. Olszewski, Patterns in Prehistory: Mankind’s First Three Million Years (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2007), 178. C. Gosden, “When Humans Arrived in the New Guinea Highlands,” Science 330 (2010): 41–42; Andrew Shryock and Daniel L. Smail, Deep History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011), 203.
11. A. Gibbons, “Oldest Homo sapiens Genome Pinpoints Neandertal Input,” Science 343 (2014): 1417; M. V. Anikovich, A. A. Sinitsyn, and J. F. Hoffecker, “Early Upper Paleolithic in Eastern Europe and Implications for the Dispersal of Modern Humans,” Science 315 (2007): 223–225; “Modern Humans’ First European Tour,” Science 334 (2011): 576.
12. Zimmer, Evolution, 297; M. Balter, “Mild Climate, Lack of Moderns Let Last Neandertals Linger in Gibraltar,” Science 313 (2006): 1557; P. Mellars and J. C. French, “Tenfold Population Increase in Western Europe at the Neandertal-to-Modern Human Transition,” Science 333 (2011): 623–627; Steven Mithen, The Prehistory of the Mind: The Cognitive Origins of Art, Religion and Science (London: Thames and Hudson, 1996), 203, quoting Andrew Whiten.
13. H. Wimmer and J. Perner, “Beliefs About Beliefs: Representation and Constraining Function of Wrong Beliefs in Young Children’s Understanding of Deception,” Cognition 13 (1983): 103–128.
14. J. Perner and H. Wimmer, “ ‘John Thinks That Mary Thinks That … ’: Attribution of Second-Order Beliefs by 5- to 10-Year-Old Children,” Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 39 (1985): 437–471.
15. Nicholas Humphrey, The Inner Eye: Social Intelligence in Evolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 70–71; Zygmunt Bauman, Mortality, Immortality and Other Life Strategies (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992), 12.
16. Theodosius Dobzhansky, The Biology of Ultimate Concern (New York: New American Library, 1967), 52, 68; John C. Eccles, Evolution of the Brain (New York: Routledge, 1989), 236; Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, The Phenomenon of Man (New York: Harper and Row, 1965), 165, 180. Teilhard de Chardin took part in the excavation of Homo erectus fossils in China and was thus in a unique position to appreciate the implications of the emerging findings for Christian theology. He wrote The Phenomenon of Man in 1938, but the Catholic Church would not give him permission to publish it until 1955.
Evolving Brains, Emerging Gods Page 28
