Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (Federal Aviation Administration)

by Federal Aviation Administration

  Merely banking the aircraft into a turn produces no change in the total amount of lift developed. Since the lift during the bank is divided into vertical and horizontal components, the amount of lift opposing gravity and supporting the aircraft’s weight is reduced. Consequently, the aircraft loses altitude unless additional lift is created. This is done by increasing the AOA until the vertical component of lift is again equal to the weight. Since the vertical component of lift decreases as the bank angle increases, the AOA must be progressively increased to produce sufficient vertical lift to support the aircraft’s weight. An important fact for pilots to remember when making constant altitude turns is that the vertical component of lift must be equal to the weight to maintain altitude.

  At a given airspeed, the rate at which an aircraft turns depends upon the magnitude of the horizontal component of lift. It is found that the horizontal component of lift is proportional to the angle of bank—that is, it increases or decreases respectively as the angle of bank increases or decreases. As the angle of bank is increased, the horizontal component of lift increases, thereby increasing the rate of turn (ROT). Consequently, at any given airspeed, the ROT can be controlled by adjusting the angle of bank.

  To provide a vertical component of lift sufficient to hold altitude in a level turn, an increase in the AOA is required. Since the drag of the airfoil is directly proportional to its AOA, induced drag increases as the lift is increased. This, in turn, causes a loss of airspeed in proportion to the angle of bank. A small angle of bank results in a small reduction in airspeed while a large angle of bank results in a large reduction in airspeed. Additional thrust (power) must be applied to prevent a reduction in airspeed in level turns. The required amount of additional thrust is proportional to the angle of bank.

  To compensate for added lift, which would result if the airspeed were increased during a turn, the AOA must be decreased, or the angle of bank increased, if a constant altitude is to be maintained. If the angle of bank is held constant and the AOA decreased, the ROT decreases. In order to maintain a constant ROT as the airspeed is increased, the AOA must remain constant and the angle of bank increased.

  An increase in airspeed results in an increase of the turn radius, and centrifugal force is directly proportional to the radius of the turn. In a correctly executed turn, the horizontal component of lift must be exactly equal and opposite to the centrifugal force. As the airspeed is increased in a constant-rate level turn, the radius of the turn increases. This increase in the radius of turn causes an increase in the centrifugal force, which must be balanced by an increase in the horizontal component of lift, which can only be increased by increasing the angle of bank.

  In a slipping turn, the aircraft is not turning at the rate appropriate to the bank being used, since the aircraft is yawed toward the outside of the turning flight path. The aircraft is banked too much for the ROT, so the horizontal lift component is greater than the centrifugal force. [Figure 5-35] Equilibrium between the horizontal lift component and centrifugal force is reestablished by either decreasing the bank, increasing the ROT, or a combination of the two changes.

  A skidding turn results from an excess of centrifugal force over the horizontal lift component, pulling the aircraft toward the outside of the turn. The ROT is too great for the angle of bank. Correction of a skidding turn thus involves a reduction in the ROT, an increase in bank, or a combination of the two changes.

  To maintain a given ROT, the angle of bank must be varied with the airspeed. This becomes particularly important in high-speed aircraft. For instance, at 400 miles per hour (mph), an aircraft must be banked approximately 44° to execute a standard-rate turn (3° per second). At this angle of bank, only about 79 percent of the lift of the aircraft comprises the vertical component of the lift. This causes a loss of altitude unless the AOA is increased sufficiently to compensate for the loss of vertical lift.

  Forces in Climbs

  For all practical purposes, the wing’s lift in a steady state normal climb is the same as it is in a steady level flight at the same airspeed. Although the aircraft’s flight path changed when the climb was established, the AOA of the wing with respect to the inclined flight path reverts to practically the same values, as does the lift. There is an initial momentary change as shown in Figure 5-36. During the transition from straight-and-level flight to a climb, a change in lift occurs when back elevator pressure is first applied. Raising the aircraft’s nose increases the AOA and momentarily increases the lift. Lift at this moment is now greater than weight and starts the aircraft climbing. After the flight path is stabilized on the upward incline, the AOA and lift again revert to about the level flight values.

  Figure 5-35. Normal, slipping, and skidding turns at a constant altitude.

  If the climb is entered with no change in power setting, the airspeed gradually diminishes because the thrust required to maintain a given airspeed in level flight is insufficient to maintain the same airspeed in a climb. When the flight path is inclined upward, a component of the aircraft’s weight acts in the same direction as, and parallel to, the total drag of the aircraft, thereby increasing the total effective drag. Consequently, the total effective drag is greater than the power, and the airspeed decreases. The reduction in airspeed gradually results in a corresponding decrease in drag until the total drag (including the component of weight acting in the same direction) equals the thrust. [Figure 5-37] Due to momentum, the change in airspeed is gradual, varying considerably with differences in aircraft size, weight, total drag, and other factors. Consequently, the total effective drag is greater than the thrust, and the airspeed decreases.

  Generally, the forces of thrust and drag, and lift and weight, again become balanced when the airspeed stabilizes but at a value lower than in straight-and-level flight at the same power setting. Since the aircraft’s weight is acting not only downward but rearward with drag while in a climb, additional power is required to maintain the same airspeed as in level flight. The amount of power depends on the angle of climb. When the climb is established steep enough that there is insufficient power available, a slower speed results.

  Figure 5-36. Changes in lift during climb entry.

  The thrust required for a stabilized climb equals drag plus a percentage of weight dependent on the angle of climb. For example, a 10° climb would require thrust to equal drag plus 17 percent of weight. To climb straight up would require thrust to equal all of weight and drag. Therefore, the angle of climb for climb performance is dependent on the amount of excess thrust available to overcome a portion of weight. Note that aircraft are able to sustain a climb due to excess thrust. When the excess thrust is gone, the aircraft is no longer able to climb. At this point, the aircraft has reached its “absolute ceiling.”

  Forces in Descents

  As in climbs, the forces that act on the aircraft go through definite changes when a descent is entered from straight-and-level flight. For the following example, the aircraft is descending at the same power as used in straight-and-level flight.

  Figure 5-37. Changes in speed during climb entry.

  As forward pressure is applied to the control yoke to initiate the descent, the AOA is decreased momentarily. Initially, the momentum of the aircraft causes the aircraft to briefly continue along the same flight path. For this instant, the AOA decreases causing the total lift to decrease. With weight now being greater than lift, the aircraft begins to descend. At the same time, the flight path goes from level to a descending flight path. Do not confuse a reduction in lift with the inability to generate sufficient lift to maintain level flight. The flight path is being manipulated with available thrust in reserve and with the elevator.

  To descend at the same airspeed as used in straight-and-level flight, the power must be reduced as the descent is entered. Entering the descent, the component of weight acting forward along the flight path increases as the angle of descent increases and, conversely, when leveling off, the component of weight acting along the flight pa
th decreases as the angle of descent decreases.

  Stalls

  An aircraft stall results from a rapid decrease in lift caused by the separation of airflow from the wing’s surface brought on by exceeding the critical AOA. A stall can occur at any pitch attitude or airspeed. Stalls are one of the most misunderstood areas of aerodynamics because pilots often believe an airfoil stops producing lift when it stalls. In a stall, the wing does not totally stop producing lift. Rather, it cannot generate adequate lift to sustain level flight.

  Since the CL increases with an increase in AOA, at some point the CL peaks and then begins to drop off. This peak is called the CL-MAX. The amount of lift the wing produces drops dramatically after exceeding the CL-MAX or critical AOA, but as stated above, it does not completely stop producing lift.

  In most straight-wing aircraft, the wing is designed to stall the wing root first. The wing root reaches its critical AOA first making the stall progress outward toward the wingtip. By having the wing root stall first, aileron effectiveness is maintained at the wingtips, maintaining controllability of the aircraft. Various design methods are used to achieve the stalling of the wing root first. In one design, the wing is “twisted” to a higher AOA at the wing root. Installing stall strips on the first 20–25 percent of the wing’s leading edge is another method to introduce a stall prematurely.

  The wing never completely stops producing lift in a stalled condition. If it did, the aircraft would fall to the Earth. Most training aircraft are designed for the nose of the aircraft to drop during a stall, reducing the AOA and “unstalling” the wing. The nose-down tendency is due to the CL being aft of the CG. The CG range is very important when it comes to stall recovery characteristics. If an aircraft is allowed to be operated outside of the CG range, the pilot may have difficulty recovering from a stall. The most critical CG violation would occur when operating with a CG that exceeds the rear limit. In this situation, a pilot may not be able to generate sufficient force with the elevator to counteract the excess weight aft of the CG. Without the ability to decrease the AOA, the aircraft continues in a stalled condition until it contacts the ground.

  The stalling speed of a particular aircraft is not a fixed value for all flight situations, but a given aircraft always stalls at the same AOA regardless of airspeed, weight, load factor, or density altitude. Each aircraft has a particular AOA where the airflow separates from the upper surface of the wing and the stall occurs. This critical AOA varies from approximately 16° to 20° depending on the aircraft’s design. But each aircraft has only one specific AOA where the stall occurs.

  There are three flight situations in which the critical AOA is most frequently exceeded: low speed, high speed, and turning.

  One way the aircraft can be stalled in straight-and-level flight by flying too slowly. As the airspeed decreases, the AOA must be increased to retain the lift required for maintaining altitude. The lower the airspeed becomes, the more the AOA must be increased. Eventually, an AOA is reached that results in the wing not producing enough lift to support the aircraft, which then starts settling. If the airspeed is reduced further, the aircraft stalls because the AOA has exceeded the critical angle and the airflow over the wing is disrupted.

  Low speed is not necessary to produce a stall. The wing can be brought into an excessive AOA at any speed. For example, an aircraft is in a dive with an airspeed of 100 knots when the pilot pulls back sharply on the elevator control. [Figure 5-38] Gravity and centrifugal force prevent an immediate alteration of the flight path, but the aircraft’s AOA changes abruptly from quite low to very high. Since the flight path of the aircraft in relation to the oncoming air determines the direction of the relative wind, the AOA is suddenly increased, and the aircraft would reach the stalling angle at a speed much greater than the normal stall speed.

  The stalling speed of an aircraft is also higher in a level turn than in straight-and-level flight. [Figure 5-39] Centrifugal force is added to the aircraft’s weight and the wing must produce sufficient additional lift to counterbalance the load imposed by the combination of centrifugal force and weight. In a turn, the necessary additional lift is acquired by applying back pressure to the elevator control. This increases the wing’s AOA and results in increased lift. The AOA must increase as the bank angle increases to counteract the increasing load caused by centrifugal force. If at any time during a turn the AOA becomes excessive, the aircraft stalls.

  Figure 5-38. Forces exerted when pulling out of a dive.

  At this point, the action of the aircraft during a stall should be examined. To balance the aircraft aerodynamically, the CL is normally located aft of the CG. Although this makes the aircraft inherently nose-heavy, downwash on the horizontal stabilizer counteracts this condition. At the point of stall, when the upward force of the wing’s lift diminishes below that required for sustained flight and the downward tail force decreases to a point of ineffectiveness, or causes it to have an upward force, an unbalanced condition exists. This causes the aircraft to pitch down abruptly, rotating about its CG. During this nose-down attitude, the AOA decreases and the airspeed again increases. The smooth flow of air over the wing begins again, lift returns, and the aircraft begins to fly again. Considerable altitude may be lost before this cycle is complete.

  Figure 5-39. Increase in stall speed and load factor.

  Airfoil shape and degradation of that shape must also be considered in a discussion of stalls. For example, if ice, snow, and frost are allowed to accumulate on the surface of an aircraft, the smooth airflow over the wing is disrupted. This causes the boundary layer to separate at an AOA lower than that of the critical angle. Lift is greatly reduced, altering expected aircraft performance. If ice is allowed to accumulate on the aircraft during flight, the weight of the aircraft is increased while the ability to generate lift is decreased. [Figure 5-40] As little as 0.8 millimeter of ice on the upper wing surface increases drag and reduces aircraft lift by 25 percent.

  Pilots can encounter icing in any season, anywhere in the country, at altitudes of up to 18,000 feet and sometimes higher. Small aircraft, including commuter planes, are most vulnerable because they fly at lower altitudes where ice is more prevalent. They also lack mechanisms common on jet aircraft that prevent ice buildup by heating the front edges of wings.

  Icing can occur in clouds any time the temperature drops below freezing and super-cooled droplets build up on an aircraft and freeze. (Super-cooled droplets are still liquid even though the temperature is below 32 °Fahrenheit (F), or 0 °Celsius (C).

  Angle of Attack Indicators

  The FAA along with the General Aviation Joint Steering Committee (GAJSC) is promoting AOA indicators as one of the many safety initiatives aimed at reducing the general aviation accident rate. AOA indicators will specifically target Loss of Control (LOC) accidents. Loss of control is the number one root cause of fatalities in both general aviation and commercial aviation. More than 25 percent of general aviation fatal accidents occur during the maneuvering phase of flight. Of those accidents, half involve stall/spin scenarios. Technology such as AOA indicators can have a tremendous impact on reversing this trend and are increasingly affordable for general aviation airplanes. [Figure 5-41]

  The purpose of an AOA indicator is to give the pilot better situation awareness pertaining to the aerodynamic health of the airfoil. This can also be referred to as stall margin awareness. More simply explained, it is the margin that exists between the current AOA that the airfoil is operating at, and the AOA at which the airfoil will stall (critical AOA).

  Figure 5-40. Inflight ice formation.

  Angle of attack is taught to student pilots as theory in ground training. When beginning flight training, students typically rely solely on airspeed and the published 1G stall speed to avoid stalls. This creates problems since this speed is only valid when the following conditions are met:

  • Unaccelerated flight (a 1G load factor)

  • Coordinated flight (inclinometer centered)


  • At one weight (typically maximum gross weight)

  Speed by itself is not a reliable parameter to avoid a stall. An airplane can stall at any speed. Angle of attack is a better parameter to use to avoid a stall. For a given configuration, the airplane always stalls at the same AOA, referred to as the critical AOA. This critical AOA does not change with:

  • Weight

  • Bank angle

  • Temperature

  • Density altitude

  • Center of gravity

  An AOA indicator can have several benefits when installed in general aviation aircraft, not the least of which is increased situational awareness. Without an AOA indicator, the AOA is “invisible” to pilots. These devices measure several parameters simultaneously and determine the current AOA providing a visual image to the pilot of the current AOA along with representations of the proximity to the critical AOA. [Figure 5-42] These devices can give a visual representation of the energy management state of the airplane. The energy state of an airplane is the balance between airspeed, altitude, drag, and thrust and represents how efficiently the airfoil is operating. The more efficiently the airfoil operates; the larger stall margin that is present. With this increased situational awareness pertaining to the energy condition of the airplane, pilots will have information that they need to aid in preventing a LOC scenario resulting from a stall/spin. Additionally, the less energy that is utilized to maintain flight means greater overall efficiency of the airplane, which is typically realized in fuel savings. This equates to a lower operating cost to the pilot.

  Just as training is required for any system on an aircraft, AOA indicators have training considerations also. A more comprehensive understanding of AOA in general should be the goal of this training along with the specific operating characteristics and limitations of the installed AOA indicator. Ground and flight instructors should make every attempt to receive training from an instructor knowledgeable about AOA indicators prior to giving instruction pertaining to or in airplanes equipped with AOA indicators. Pilot schools should incorporate training on AOA indicators in their syllabi, whether their training aircraft are equipped with them or not.