Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (Federal Aviation Administration)
Page 42
Placards
Most aircraft display one or more placards that contain information having a direct bearing on the safe operation of the aircraft. These placards are located in conspicuous places and are reproduced in the Limitations section or as directed by an Airworthiness Directive (AD). [Figure 9-5] Airworthiness Directives are explained in detail later in this chapter.
Emergency Procedures (Section 3)
Checklists describing the recommended procedures and airspeeds for coping with various types of emergencies or critical situations are located in the Emergency Procedures section. Some of the emergencies covered include: engine failure, fire, and system failure. The procedures for inflight engine restarting and ditching may also be included. Manufacturers may first show an emergency checklist in an abbreviated form with the order of items reflecting the sequence of action. Amplified checklists that provide additional information on the procedures follow the abbreviated checklist. To be prepared for emergency situations, memorize the immediate action items and, after completion, refer to the appropriate checklist.
Figure 9-5. Placards are used to depict aircraft limitations.
Manufacturers may include an optional subsection entitled Abnormal Procedures. This subsection describes recommended procedures for handling malfunctions that are not considered emergencies.
Normal Procedures (Section 4)
This section begins with a list of the airspeeds for normal operations. The next area consists of several checklists that may include preflight inspection, before starting procedures, starting engine, before taxiing, taxiing, before takeoff, climb, cruise, descent, before landing, balked landing, after landing, and post flight procedures. An Amplified Procedures area follows the checklists to provide more detailed information about the various previously mentioned procedures.
To avoid missing important steps, always use the appropriate checklists when available. Consistent adherence to approved checklists is a sign of a disciplined and competent pilot.
Performance (Section 5)
The Performance section contains all the information required by the aircraft certification regulations and any additional performance information the manufacturer deems important to pilot ability to safely operate the aircraft. Performance charts, tables, and graphs vary in style, but all contain the same basic information. Examples of the performance information found in most flight manuals include a graph or table for converting calibrated airspeed to true airspeed; stall speeds in various configurations; and data for determining takeoff and climb performance, cruise performance, and landing performance. Figure 9-6 is an example of a typical performance graph. For more information on use of the charts, graphs, and tables, refer to Chapter 10, Aircraft Performance.
Weight and Balance/Equipment List (Section 6)
The Weight and Balance/Equipment List section contains all the information required by the FAA to calculate the weight and balance of an aircraft. Manufacturers include sample weight and balance problems. Weight and balance is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 10, Weight and Balance.
Systems Description (Section 7)
This section describes the aircraft systems in a manner appropriate to the pilot most likely to operate the aircraft. For example, a manufacturer might assume an experienced pilot will be reading the information for an advanced aircraft. For more information on aircraft systems, refer to Chapter 7, Aircraft Systems.
Figure 9-6. Stall speed chart.
Handling, Service, and Maintenance (Section 8)
The Handling, Service, and Maintenance section describes the maintenance and inspections recommended by the manufacturer (and the regulations). Additional maintenance or inspections may be required by the issuance of ADs applicable to the airframe, engine, propeller, or components. This section also describes preventive maintenance that may be accomplished by certificated pilots, as well as the manufacturer’s recommended ground handling procedures. It includes considerations for hangaring, tie-down, and general storage procedures for the aircraft.
Supplements (Section 9)
The Supplements section contains information necessary to safely and efficiently operate the aircraft when equipped with optional systems and equipment (not provided with the standard aircraft). Some of this information may be supplied by the aircraft manufacturer or by the manufacturer of the optional equipment. The appropriate information is inserted into the flight manual at the time the equipment is installed. Autopilots, navigation systems, and air-conditioning systems are examples of equipment described in this section. [Figure 9-7]
Figure 9-7. Supplements provide information on optional equipment.
Safety Tips (Section 10)
The Safety Tips section is an optional section containing a review of information that enhances the safe operation of the aircraft. For example, physiological factors, general weather information, fuel conservation procedures, high altitude operations, or cold weather operations might be discussed.
Aircraft Documents
Certificate of Aircraft Registration
Before an aircraft can be flown legally, it must be registered with the FAA Aircraft Registry. The Certificate of Aircraft Registration, which is issued to the owner as evidence of the registration, must be carried in the aircraft at all times. [Figure 9-8]
Figure 9-8. AC Form 8050-3, Certificate of Aircraft Registration.
The Certificate of Aircraft Registration cannot be used for operations when:
• The aircraft is registered under the laws of a foreign country
• The aircraft’s registration is canceled upon written request of the certificate holder
• The aircraft is totally destroyed or scrapped
• The ownership of the aircraft is transferred
• The certificate holder loses United States citizenship
For additional information, see 14 CFR part 47, section 47.41. When one of the events listed in 14 CFR part 47, section 47.41 occurs, the previous owner must notify the FAA by filling in the back of the Certificate of Aircraft Registration, and mailing it to:
FAA Aircraft Registration Branch, AFS-750
P.O. Box 25504
Oklahoma City, OK 73125-0504
A dealer’s aircraft registration certificate is another form of registration certificate, but is valid only for required flight tests by the manufacturer or in flights that are necessary for the sale of the aircraft by the manufacturer or a dealer. The dealer must remove the certificate when the aircraft is sold.
Upon complying with 14 CFR part 47, section 47.31, the pink copy of the application for an Aircraft Registration Application, Aeronautical Center (AC) Form 8050-1, provides authorization to operate an unregistered aircraft for a period not to exceed 90 days. Since the aircraft is unregistered, it cannot be operated outside of the United States until a permanent Certificate of Aircraft Registration is received and placed in the aircraft.
The FAA does not issue any certificate of ownership or endorse any information with respect to ownership on a Certificate of Aircraft Registration.
NOTE: For additional information concerning the Aircraft Registration Application or the Aircraft Bill of Sale, contact the nearest FAA Flight Standards District Office (FSDO).
Airworthiness Certificate
An Airworthiness Certificate is issued by a representative of the FAA after the aircraft has been inspected, is found to meet the requirements of 14 CFR part 21, and is in condition for safe operation. The Airworthiness Certificate must be displayed in the aircraft so it is legible to the passengers and crew whenever it is operated. The Airworthiness Certificate must remain with the aircraft unless it is sold to a foreign purchaser.
Figure 9-9. FAA Form 8100-2, Standard Airworthiness Certificate.
A Standard Airworthiness Certificate is issued for aircraft type certificated in the normal, utility, acrobatic, commuter, transport categories, and manned free balloons. Figure 9-9 illustrates a Standard Airworthiness Certificate, and an explanation of each
item in the certificate follows.
1. Nationality and Registration Marks. The “N” indicates the aircraft is registered in the United States. Registration marks consist of a series of up to five numbers or numbers and letters. In this case, N2631A is the registration number assigned to this aircraft.
2. Manufacturer and Model. Indicates the manufacturer, make, and model of the aircraft.
3. Aircraft Serial Number. Indicates the manufacturer’s serial number assigned to the aircraft, as noted on the aircraft data plate.
4. Category. Indicates the category in which the aircraft must be operated. In this case, it must be operated in accordance with the limitations specified for the “NORMAL” category.
5. Authority and Basis for Issuance. Indicates the aircraft conforms to its type certificate and is considered in condition for safe operation at the time of inspection and issuance of the certificate. Any exemptions from the applicable airworthiness standards are briefly noted here and the exemption number given. The word “NONE” is entered if no exemption exists.
6. Terms and Conditions. Indicates the Airworthiness Certificate is in effect indefinitely if the aircraft is maintained in accordance with 14 CFR parts 21, 43, and 91, and the aircraft is registered in the United States.
Also included are the date the certificate was issued and the signature and office identification of the FAA representative.
A Standard Airworthiness Certificate remains in effect if the aircraft receives the required maintenance and is properly registered in the United States. Flight safety relies in part on the condition of the aircraft, which is determined by inspections performed by mechanics, approved repair stations, or manufacturers that meet specific requirements of 14 CFR part 43.
A Special Airworthiness Certificate is issued for all aircraft certificated in other than the Standard classifications, such as Experimental, Restricted, Limited, Provisional, and Light-Sport Aircraft (LSA). LSA receive a pink special airworthiness certificate; however, there are exceptions. For example, the Piper Cub is in the LSA category, but it was certificated as a normal aircraft during its manufacture. When purchasing an aircraft classified as other than Standard, it is recommended that the local FSDO be contacted for an explanation of the pertinent airworthiness requirements and the limitations of such a certificate.
Aircraft Maintenance
Maintenance is defined as the preservation, inspection, overhaul, and repair of an aircraft, including the replacement of parts. Regular and proper maintenance ensures that an aircraft meets an acceptable standard of airworthiness throughout its operational life.
Although maintenance requirements vary for different types of aircraft, experience shows that aircraft need some type of preventive maintenance every 25 hours of flying time or less and minor maintenance at least every 100 hours. This is influenced by the kind of operation, climatic conditions, storage facilities, age, and construction of the aircraft. Manufacturers supply maintenance manuals, parts catalogs, and other service information that should be used in maintaining the aircraft.
Aircraft Inspections
Under 14 CFR part 91, the primary responsibility for maintaining an aircraft in an airworthy condition falls on the owner or operator of the aircraft. Certain inspections must be performed on the aircraft, and the owner must maintain the airworthiness of the aircraft during the time between required inspections by having any defects corrected.
Under 14 CFR, part 91, subpart E, all civil aircraft are required to be inspected at specific intervals to determine the overall condition. The interval depends upon the type of operations in which the aircraft is engaged. All aircraft need to be inspected at least once every 12 calendar months, while inspection is required for others after every 100 hours of operation. Some aircraft are inspected in accordance with an inspection system set up to provide for total inspection of the aircraft on the basis of calendar time, time in service, number of system operations, or any combination of these.
All inspections should follow the current manufacturer’s maintenance manual, including the Instructions for Continued Airworthiness concerning inspection intervals, parts replacement, and life-limited items as applicable to the aircraft.
Annual Inspection
Any reciprocating engine or single-engine turbojet/turbopropeller-powered small aircraft (weighing 12,500 pounds or less) flown for business or pleasure and not flown for compensation or hire is required to be inspected at least annually. The inspection shall be performed by a certificated airframe and powerplant (A&P) mechanic who holds an inspection authorization (IA) by the manufacturer of the aircraft or by a certificated and appropriately rated repair station. The aircraft may not be operated unless the annual inspection has been performed within the preceding 12 calendar months. A period of 12 calendar months extends from any day of a month to the last day of the same month the following year. An aircraft overdue for an annual inspection may be operated under a Special Flight Permit issued by the FAA for the purpose of flying the aircraft to a location where the annual inspection can be performed. However, all applicable ADs that are due must be complied with before the flight.
100-Hour Inspection
All aircraft under 12,500 pounds (except turbojet/turbopropeller-powered multi-engine airplanes and turbine powered rotorcraft), used to carry passengers for hire, must receive a 100-hour inspection within the preceding 100 hours of time in service and must be approved for return to service. Additionally, an aircraft used for flight instruction for hire, when provided by the person giving the flight instruction, must also have received a 100-hour inspection. This inspection must be performed by an FAA-certificated A&P mechanic, an appropriately rated FAA-certificated repair station, or by the aircraft manufacturer. An annual inspection, or an inspection for the issuance of an Airworthiness Certificate, may be substituted for a required 100-hour inspection. The 100-hour limitation may be exceeded by no more than 10 hours for the purpose of traveling to a location at which the required inspection can be performed. Any excess time used for this purpose must be included in computing the next 100 hours of time in service.
Other Inspection Programs
The annual and 100-hour inspection requirements do not apply to large (over 12,500 pounds) airplanes, turbojets, or turbopropeller-powered multi-engine airplanes or to aircraft for which the owner complies with a progressive inspection program. Details of these requirements may be determined by referencing 14 CFR, part 43, section 43.11 and 14 CFR part 91, subpart E, or by inquiring at a local FSDO.
Altimeter System Inspection
Under 14 CFR, part 91, section 91.411, requires that the altimeter, encoding altimeter, and related system must be tested and inspected within the 24 months prior to operating in controlled airspace under instrument flight rules (IFR). This applies to all aircraft being operated in controlled airspace.
Transponder Inspection
Title 14 CFR, part 91, section 91.413, requires that before a transponder can be used under 14 CFR, part 91, section 91.215(a), it shall be tested and inspected within the 24 months prior to operation of the aircraft regardless of airspace restrictions.
Emergency Locator Transmitter
An emergency locator transmitter (ELT) is required by 14 CFR, part 91, section 91.207, and must be inspected within 12 calendar months after the last inspection for the following:
• Proper installation
• Battery corrosion
• Operation of the controls and crash sensor
• The presence of a sufficient signal radiated from its antenna
The ELT must be attached to the airplane in such a manner that the probability of damage to the transmitter in the event of crash impact is minimized. Fixed and deployable automatic type transmitters must be attached to the airplane as far aft as practicable. Batteries used in the ELTs must be replaced (or recharged, if the batteries are rechargeable):
• When the transmitter has been in use for more than 1 cumulative hour
• When 5
0 percent of the battery useful life or, for rechargeable batteries, 50 percent of useful life of the charge has expired
An expiration date for replacing (or recharging) the battery must be legibly marked on the outside of the transmitter and entered in the aircraft maintenance record. This does not apply to batteries that are essentially unaffected during storage intervals, such as water-activated batteries.
Preflight Inspections
The preflight inspection is a thorough and systematic means by which a pilot determines if an aircraft is airworthy and in condition for safe operation. POHs and owner/information manuals contain a section devoted to a systematic method of performing a preflight inspection.
Minimum Equipment Lists (MEL) and Operations With Inoperative Equipment
Under 14 CFR, all aircraft instruments and installed equipment are required to be operative prior to each departure. When the FAA adopted the minimum equipment list (MEL) concept for 14 CFR part 91 operations, it allowed aircraft to be operated with inoperative equipment determined to be nonessential for safe flight. At the same time, it allowed part 91 operators, without an MEL, to defer repairs on nonessential equipment within the guidelines of part 91.
The FAA has two acceptable methods of deferring maintenance on small rotorcraft, non-turbine powered airplanes, gliders, or lighter-than-air aircraft operated under part 91. They are the deferral provision of 14 CFR, part 91, section 91.213(d) and an FAA-approved MEL.