Figure 13-19. The AIRMET information box instructs the pilot to press the ENTER button soft key (ENT) to gain additional information on the selected area of weather. Once the ENTER soft key (ENT) is depressed, the specific textual information is displayed on the right side of the screen.
Figure 13-20. SIGMET/AIRMET legend display.
Figure 13-21. Graphical METAR legend display.
Data Link Weather Products
Flight Information Service- Broadcast (FIS-B)
Flight Information Service–Broadcast (FIS-B) is a ground broadcast service provided through the Automatic Dependent Surveillance–Broadcast (ADS-B) Services network over the 978 MHz UAT data link. The FAA FIS-B system provides pilots and flight crews of properly-equipped aircraft with a flightdeck display of certain aviation weather and aeronautical information which are listed below.
• Aviation Routine Weather Reports (METARs)
• Special Aviation Reports (SPECIs)
• Terminal Area Forecasts (TAFs) and their amendments
• NEXRAD (regional and CONUS) precipitation maps
• Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) Distant and Flight Data Center
• Airmen’s Meteorological Conditions (AIRMET)
• Significant Meteorological Conditions (SIGMET) and Convective SIGMET
• Status of Special Use Airspace (SUA)
• Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFRs)
• Winds and Temperatures Aloft.
• Pilot Reports (PIREPS)
• TIS-B service status
The weather products provided by FIS-B are for information only. Therefore, these products do not meet the safety and regulatory requirements of official weather products. The weather products displayed on FIS-B should not be used as primary weather products (i.e., aviation weather to meet operational and safety requirements). Each aircraft system is different and some of the data that is rendered can be up to 20 or 30 minutes old and not current. Pilots should consult the individual equipment manuals for specific delay times.
Pilot Responsibility
It is important for pilots to understand the realization that the derived safety benefits of data link depends heavily upon the pilot’s understanding of the specific system’s capabilities and limitations which are listed below.
• Product latency—be aware of the time stamp or “valid until” time on the particular data link information displayed in the flightdeck. For example, since initial processing and transmission of NEXRAD data can take several minutes, pilots must assume that data link weather information will always be a minimum of seven to eight minutes older than shown on the time stamp and only use data link weather radar images for broad strategic avoidance of adverse weather.
• Product update cycles—be aware of when and how often a product is updated as well as the Data Link Service Providers (DLSP) update rate for particular products.
• Indication of system failure—be aware of partial or total system failure indications.
• Coverage areas/service volume—coverage limitations are associated with the type of data link network being used. For example, ground-based systems that require a line-of-sight may have relatively limited coverage below 5,000 feet AGL. Satellite-based data link weather systems can have limitations stemming from whether the network is in geosynchronous orbit or low earth orbit. Also, NWS NEXRAD coverage has gaps, especially in the western states.
• Content/format—since service providers often refine or enhance data link products for flightdeck display, pilots must be familiar with the content, format, and meaning of symbols and displays (i.e., the legend) in the specific system.
• Data integrity/limitations to use—reliability of information depicted. Be aware of any applicable disclaimer provided by the service provider.
• Use of equipment/avionics display—pilots remain responsible for the proper use of an electronic flight bag (EFB) or installed avionics. Pilots should be cognizant that, per the FAA Practical Test Standards, they may be evaluated on the use and interpretation of an EFB or installed avionics on the aircraft.
• Overload of Information—most DLSPs offer numerous products with information that can be layered on top of each other. Pilots need to be aware that too much information can have a negative effect on their cognitive work load. Pilots need to manage the amount of information to a level that offers the most pertinent information to that specific flight without creating a distraction. Pilots may need to adjust the amount of information based on numerous factors including, but not limited to, the phase of flight, single pilot operation, autopilot availability, class of airspace, and the weather conditions encountered.
Chapter Summary
While no weather forecast is guaranteed to be 100 percent accurate, pilots have access to a myriad of weather information on which to base flight decisions. Weather products available for preflight planning to en route information received over the radio or via data link provide the pilot with the most accurate and up-to-date information available. Each report provides a piece of the weather puzzle. Pilots must use several reports to get an overall picture and gain an understanding of the weather that affects the safe completion of a flight.
Chapter 14
Airport Operations
Introduction
Each time a pilot operates an aircraft, the flight normally begins and ends at an airport. An airport may be a small sod field or a large complex utilized by air carriers. This chapter examines airport operations, identifies features of an airport complex, and provides information on operating on or in the vicinity of an airport.
Airport Categories
The definition for airports refers to any area of land or water used or intended for landing or takeoff of aircraft. This includes, within the five categories of airports listed below, special types of facilities including seaplane bases, heliports, and facilities to accommodate tilt rotor aircraft. An airport includes an area used or intended for airport buildings, facilities, as well as rights of way together with the buildings and facilities.
The law defines airports by categories of airport activities, including commercial service, primary, cargo service, reliever, and general aviation airports, as shown below:
• Commercial Service Airports—publicly owned airports that have at least 2,500 passenger boardings each calendar year and receive scheduled passenger service. Passenger boardings refer to revenue passenger boardings on an aircraft in service in air commerce whether or not in scheduled service. The definition also includes passengers who continue on an aircraft in international flight that stops at an airport in any of the 50 States for a non-traffic purpose, such as refueling or aircraft maintenance rather than passenger activity. Passenger boardings at airports that receive scheduled passenger service are also referred to as Enplanements.
• Cargo Service Airports—airports that, in addition to any other air transportation services that may be available, are served by aircraft providing air transportation of only cargo with a total annual landed weight of more than 100 million pounds. “Landed weight” means the weight of aircraft transporting only cargo in intrastate, interstate, and foreign air transportation. An airport may be both a commercial service and a cargo service airport.
• Reliever Airports—airports designated by the FAA to relieve congestion at Commercial Service Airports and to provide improved general aviation access to the overall community. These may be publicly or privately-owned.
• General Aviation Airports — the remaining airports are commonly described as General Aviation Airports. This airport type is the largest single group of airports in the U.S. system. The category also includes privately owned, public use airports that enplane 2500 or more passengers annually and receive scheduled airline service.
Types of Airports
There are two types of airports—towered and nontowered. These types can be further subdivided to:
• Civil Airports—airports that are open to the general public.
• Military/Federal Government airports—airports operated by the military, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), or other agencies of the Federal Government.
• Private Airports—airports designated for private or restricted use only, not open to the general public.
Towered Airport
A towered airport has an operating control tower. Air traffic control (ATC) is responsible for providing the safe, orderly, and expeditious flow of air traffic at airports where the type of operations and/or volume of traffic requires such a service. Pilots operating from a towered airport are required to maintain two-way radio communication with ATC and to acknowledge and comply with their instructions. Pilots must advise ATC if they cannot comply with the instructions issued and request amended instructions. A pilot may deviate from an air traffic instruction in an emergency, but must advise ATC of the deviation as soon as possible.
Nontowered Airport
A nontowered airport does not have an operating control tower. Two-way radio communications are not required, although it is a good operating practice for pilots to transmit their intentions on the specified frequency for the benefit of other traffic in the area. The key to communicating at an airport without an operating control tower is selection of the correct common frequency. The acronym CTAF, which stands for Common Traffic Advisory Frequency, is synonymous with this program. A CTAF is a frequency designated for the purpose of carrying out airport advisory practices while operating to or from an airport without an operating control tower. The CTAF may be a Universal Integrated Community (UNICOM), MULTICOM, Flight Service Station (FSS), or tower frequency and is identified in appropriate aeronautical publications. UNICOM is a nongovernment air/ground radio communication station that may provide airport information at public use airports where there is no tower or FSS. On pilot request, UNICOM stations may provide pilots with weather information, wind direction, the recommended runway, or other necessary information. If the UNICOM frequency is designated as the CTAF, it is identified in appropriate aeronautical publications. Figure 14-1 lists recommended communication procedures. More information regarding radio communications is provided later in this chapter.
Nontowered airport traffic patterns are always entered at pattern altitude. How you enter the pattern depends upon the direction of arrival. The preferred method for entering from the downwind side of the pattern is to approach the pattern on a course 45 degrees to the downwind leg and join the pattern at midfield.
There are several ways to enter the pattern if you’re coming from the upwind leg side of the airport. One method of entry from the opposite side of the pattern is to announce your intentions and cross over midfield at least 500 feet above pattern altitude (normally 1,500 feet AGL.) However, if large or turbine aircraft operate at your airport, it is best to remain 2,000 feet AGL so you are not in conflict with their traffic pattern. When well clear of the pattern—approximately 2 miles–scan carefully for traffic, descend to pattern altitude, then turn right to enter at 45° to the downwind leg at midfield. [Figure 14-2]
Figure 14-1. Recommended communication procedures.
An alternate method is to enter on a midfield crosswind at pattern altitude, carefully scan for traffic, announce your intentions, and then turn downwind. [Figure 14-3] This technique should not be used if the pattern is busy. Always remember to give way to aircraft on the preferred 45° entry and to aircraft already established on downwind.
In either case, it is vital to announce your intentions, and remember to scan outside. Before joining the downwind leg, adjust your course or speed to blend into the traffic. Adjust power on the downwind leg, or sooner, to fit into the flow of traffic. Avoid flying too fast or too slow. Speeds recommended by the airplane manufacturer should be used. They will generally fall between 70 to 80 knots for fixed-gear singles and 80 to 90 knots for high-performance retractable.
Sources for Airport Data
When a pilot flies into a different airport, it is important to review the current data for that airport. This data provides the pilot with information, such as communication frequencies, services available, closed runways, or airport construction. Three common sources of information are:
• Aeronautical Charts
• Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility Directory)
• Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs)
• Automated Terminal Information Service (ATIS)
Aeronautical Charts
Aeronautical charts provide specific information on airports. Chapter 16, “Navigation,” contains an excerpt from an aeronautical chart and an aeronautical chart legend, which provides guidance on interpreting the information on the chart.
Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility Directory)
The Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility Directory) provides the most comprehensive information on a given airport. It contains information on airports, heliports, and seaplane bases that are open to the public. The Chart Supplement U.S. is published in seven books, which are organized by regions and are revised every 56 days. The Chart Supplement U.S. is also available digitally at www.faa.gov/air_traffic/flight_info/aeronav. Figure 14-4 contains an excerpt from a directory. For a complete listing of information provided in a Chart Supplement U.S. and how the information may be decoded, refer to the “Legend Sample” located Supplement U.S.
Figure 14-2. Preferred Entry-Crossing Midfield.
In addition to airport information, each Chart Supplement U.S. contains information such as special notices, Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and National Weather Service (NWS) telephone numbers, preferred instrument flight rules (IFR) routing, visual flight rules (VFR) waypoints, a listing of very high frequency (VHF) omnidirectional range (VOR) receiver checkpoints, aeronautical chart bulletins, land and hold short operations (LAHSO) for selected airports, airport diagrams for selected towered airports, en route flight advisory service (EFAS) outlets, parachute jumping areas, and facility telephone numbers. It is beneficial to review a Chart Supplement U.S. to become familiar with the information it contains.
Notices to Airmen (NOTAM)
Time-critical aeronautical information, which is of a temporary nature or not sufficiently known in advance to permit publication, on aeronautical charts or in other operational publications receives immediate dissemination by the NOTAM system. The NOTAM information could affect your decision to make the flight. It includes such information as taxiway and runway closures, construction, communications, changes in status of navigational aids, and other information essential to planned en route, terminal, or landing operations. Exercise good judgment and common sense by carefully regarding the information readily available in NOTAMs.
Figure 14-3. Alternate Midfield Entry.
Figure 14-4. Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility Directory excerpt.
Prior to any flight, pilots should check for any NOTAMs that could affect their intended flight. For more information on NOTAMs, refer back to Chapter 1, “Pilot and Aeronautical Information” section.
Automated Terminal Information Service (ATIS)
The Automated Terminal Information Service (ATIS) is a recording of the local weather conditions and other pertinent non-control information broadcast on a local frequency in a looped format. It is normally updated once per hour but is updated more often when changing local conditions warrant. Important information is broadcast on ATIS including weather, runways in use, specific ATC procedures, and any airport construction activity that could affect taxi planning.
When the ATIS is recorded, it is given a code. This code is changed with every ATIS update. For example, ATIS Alpha is replaced by ATIS Bravo. The next hour, ATIS Charlie is recorded, followed by ATIS Delta and progresses down the alphabet.
Prior to calling ATC, tune to the ATIS frequency and listen to the recorded broadcast. The broadcast ends with a statement containing the ATIS code. For example, “Advise on initial contact, you have information Bravo.” Upon contacting the to
wer controller, state information Bravo was received. This allows the tower controller to verify the pilot has the current local weather and airport information without having to state it all to each pilot who calls. This also clears the tower frequency from being overtaken by the constant relay of the same information, which would result without an ATIS broadcast. The use of ATIS broadcasts at departure and arrival airports is not only a sound practice but a wise decision.
Airport Markings and Signs
There are markings and signs used at airports that provide directions and assist pilots in airport operations. It is important for you to know the meanings of the signs, markings, and lights that are used on airports as surface navigational aids. All airport markings are painted on the surface, whereas some signs are vertical and some are painted on the surface. An overview of the most common signs and markings are described on the following pages. Additional information may be found in Chapter 2, “Aeronautical Lighting and Other Airport Visual Aids,” of the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM).
Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (Federal Aviation Administration) Page 58
