Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (Federal Aviation Administration)
Page 65
1. A deviation is necessary to conform to ICAO Documents, National Rules of the Air, or special agreements where the United States provides ATC service in airspace outside the country and its possessions
2. Other procedures/minima are prescribed in a letter of agreement, FAA directive, or a military document
3. A deviation is necessary to assist an aircraft when an emergency has been declared
Coordinating the Use of Airspace
ATC is responsible for ensuring that the necessary coordination has been accomplished before allowing an aircraft under their control to enter another controller’s area of jurisdiction.
Before issuing control instructions directly or relaying through another source to an aircraft that is within another controller’s area of jurisdiction that will change that aircraft’s heading, route, speed, or altitude, ATC ensures that coordination has been accomplished with each of the controllers listed below whose area of jurisdiction is affected by those instructions unless otherwise specified by a letter of agreement or a facility directive:
1. The controller within whose area of jurisdiction the control instructions are issued
2. The controller receiving the transfer of control
3. Any intervening controller(s) through whose area of jurisdiction the aircraft will pass
If ATC issues control instructions to an aircraft through a source other than another controller (e.g., Aeronautical Radio, Incorporated (ARINC), FSS, another pilot), they ensure that the necessary coordination has been accomplished with any controllers listed above, whose area of jurisdiction is affected by those instructions unless otherwise specified by a letter of agreement or a facility directive.
Operating in the Various Types of Airspace
It is important that pilots be familiar with the operational requirements for each of the various types or classes of airspace. Subsequent sections cover each class in sufficient detail to facilitate understanding regarding weather, type of pilot certificate held, and equipment required.
Basic VFR Weather Minimums
No pilot may operate an aircraft under basic VFR when the flight visibility is less, or at a distance from clouds that is less, than that prescribed for the corresponding altitude and class of airspace. [Figure 15-8] Except as provided in 14 CFR part 91, section 91.157, “Special VFR Weather Minimums,” no person may operate an aircraft beneath the ceiling under VFR within the lateral boundaries of controlled airspace designated to the surface for an airport when the ceiling is less than 1,000 feet. Additional information can be found in 14 CFR part 91, section 91.155(c).
Figure 15-8. Visual flight rule weather minimums.
Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements
The safety of flight is a top priority of all pilots and the responsibilities associated with operating an aircraft should always be taken seriously. The air traffic system maintains a high degree of safety and efficiency with strict regulatory oversight of the FAA. Pilots fly in accordance with regulations that have served the United States well, as evidenced by the fact that the country has the safest aviation system in the world.
All aircraft operating in today’s National Airspace System (NAS) has complied with the CFR governing its certification and maintenance; all pilots operating today have completed rigorous pilot certification training and testing. Of equal importance is the proper execution of preflight planning, aeronautical decision-making (ADM) and risk management. ADM involves a systematic approach to risk assessment and stress management in aviation, illustrates how personal attitudes can influence decision-making, and how those attitudes can be modified to enhance safety in the flight deck. More detailed information regarding ADM and risk mitigation can be found in Chapter 2, “Aeronautical Decision-Making.”
Pilots also comply with very strict FAA general operating and flight rules as outlined in the CFR, including the FAA’s important “see and avoid” mandate. These regulations provide the historical foundation of the FAA regulations governing the aviation system and the individual classes of airspace. Figure 15-9 lists the operational and equipment requirements for these various classes of airspace. It is helpful to refer to this figure as the specific classes are discussed in greater detail.
Class A
Pilots operating an aircraft in Class A airspace must conduct that operation under IFR and only under an ATC clearance received prior to entering the airspace. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each aircraft operating in Class A airspace must be equipped with a two-way radio capable of communicating with ATC on a frequency assigned by ATC. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, all aircraft within Class A airspace must be equipped with the appropriate transponder equipment meeting all applicable specifications found in 14 CFR part 91, section 91.215. Additionally, beginning January 1, 2020, aircraft operating in the Class A airspace described in 14 CFR part 91, section 91.225, must have ADS-B Out equipment installed, which meets the performance requirements of 14 CFR part 91, section 91.227.
Class B
All pilots operating an aircraft within a Class B airspace area must receive an ATC clearance from the ATC facility having jurisdiction for that area. The pilot in command (PIC) may not take off or land an aircraft at an airport within a Class B airspace unless he or she has met one of the following requirements:
1. A private pilot certificate
2. A recreational pilot certificate and all requirements contained within 14 CFR part 61, section 61.101(d), or the requirements for a student pilot seeking a recreational pilot certificate in 14 CFR part 61, section 61.94.
3. A sport pilot certificate and all requirements contained within 14 CFR part 61, section 61.325, or the requirements for a student pilot seeking a recreational pilot certificate in 14 CFR part 61, section 61.94, or the aircraft is operated by a student pilot who has met the requirements of 14 CFR part 61, sections 61.94 and 61.95, as applicable.
Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, all aircraft within Class B airspace must be equipped with the applicable operating transponder and automatic altitude reporting equipment specified in 14 CFR part 91, section 91.215(a) and an operable two-way radio capable of communications with ATC on appropriate frequencies for that Class B airspace area. Additionally, beginning January 1, 2020, aircraft operating in the Class B airspace described in 14 CFR part 91, section 91.225, must have ADS-B Out equipment installed, which meets the performance requirements of 14 CFR part 91, section 91.227.
Class C
For the purpose of this section, the primary airport is the airport for which the Class C airspace area is designated. A satellite airport is any other airport within the Class C airspace area. No pilot may take off or land an aircraft at a satellite airport within a Class C airspace area except in compliance with FAA arrival and departure traffic patterns.
Two-way radio communications must be established and maintained with the ATC facility providing air traffic services prior to entering the airspace and thereafter maintained while within the airspace.
Figure 15-9. Requirements for airspace operations.
A pilot departing from the primary airport or satellite airport with an operating control tower must establish and maintain two-way radio communications with the control tower, and thereafter as instructed by ATC while operating in the Class C airspace area. If departing from a satellite airport without an operating control tower, the pilot must establish and maintain two-way radio communications with the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the Class C airspace area as soon as practicable after departing.
Unless otherwise authorized by the ATC having jurisdiction over the Class C airspace area, all aircraft within Class C airspace must be equipped with the appropriate transponder equipment meeting all applicable specifications found in 14 CFR part 91, section 91.215. Additionally, beginning January 1, 2020, aircraft operating in the Class C airspace described in 14 CFR part 91, section 91.225, must have ADS-B Out equipment installed, which meets the performance requirements of 14 CFR part 91, section 91.227.
Class D
No pilot may take off or land an aircraft at a satellite airport within a Class D airspace area except in compliance with FAA arrival and departure traffic patterns. A pilot departing from the primary airport or satellite airport with an operating control tower must establish and maintain two-way radio communications with the control tower, and thereafter as instructed by ATC while operating in the Class D airspace area. If departing from a satellite airport without an operating control tower, the pilot must establish and maintain two-way radio communications with the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the Class D airspace area as soon as practicable after departing.
Two-way radio communications must be established and maintained with the ATC facility providing air traffic services prior to entering the airspace and thereafter maintained while within the airspace.
If the aircraft radio fails in flight under IFR, the pilot should continue the flight by the route assigned in the last ATC clearance received; or, if being radar vectored, by the direct route from the point of radio failure to the fix, route, or airway specified in the vector clearance. In the absence of an assigned route, the pilot should continue by the route that ATC advised may be expected in a further clearance; or, if a route had not been advised, by the route filed in the flight plan.
If the aircraft radio fails in flight under VFR, the PIC may operate that aircraft and land if weather conditions are at or above basic VFR weather minimums, visual contact with the tower is maintained, and a clearance to land is received.
Class E
Unless otherwise required by 14 CFR part 93 or unless otherwise authorized or required by the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the Class E airspace area, each pilot operating an aircraft on or in the vicinity of an airport in a Class E airspace area must comply with the requirements of Class G airspace. Each pilot must also comply with any traffic patterns established for that airport in 14 CFR part 93.
Unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC, no person may operate an aircraft to, from, through, or on an airport having an operational control tower unless two-way radio communications are maintained between that aircraft and the control tower. Communications must be established within four nautical miles from the airport, up to and including 2,500 feet AGL. However, if the aircraft radio fails in flight, the PIC may operate that aircraft and land if weather conditions are at or above basic VFR weather minimums, visual contact with the tower is maintained, and a clearance to land is received.
If the aircraft radio fails in flight under IFR, the pilot should continue the flight by the route assigned in the last ATC clearance received; or, if being radar vectored, by the direct route from the point of radio failure to the fix, route, or airway specified in the vector clearance. In the absence of an assigned route, the pilot should continue by the route that ATC advised may be expected in a further clearance; or, if a route had not been advised, by the route filed in the flight plan. Additionally, beginning January 1, 2020, aircraft operating in the Class E airspace described in 14 CFR part 91, section 91.225, must have ADS-B Out equipment installed, which meets the performance requirements of 14 CFR part 91, section 91.227.
Class G
When approaching to land at an airport without an operating control tower in Class G airspace:
1. Each pilot of an airplane must make all turns of that airplane to the left unless the airport displays approved light signals or visual markings indicating that turns should be made to the right, in which case the pilot must make all turns to the right.
2. Each pilot of a helicopter or a powered parachute must avoid the flow of fixed-wing aircraft.
Unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC, no person may operate an aircraft to, from, through, or on an airport having an operational control tower unless two-way radio communications are maintained between that aircraft and the control tower. Communications must be established within four nautical miles from the airport, up to and including 2,500 feet AGL. However, if the aircraft radio fails in flight, the PIC may operate that aircraft and land if weather conditions are at or above basic VFR weather minimums, visual contact with the tower is maintained, and a clearance to land is received.
If the aircraft radio fails in flight under IFR, the pilot should continue the flight by the route assigned in the last ATC clearance received; or, if being radar vectored, by the direct route from the point of radio failure to the fix, route, or airway specified in the vector clearance. In the absence of an assigned route, the pilot should continue by the route that ATC advised may be expected in a further clearance; or, if a route had not been advised, by the route filed in the flight plan.
Uncontrolled Airspace
It is possible for some airports within Class G airspace to have a control tower (Lake City, FL, for example). Be sure to check the Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility Directory) to be familiar with the airport and associated airspace prior to flight.
Ultralight Vehicles
No person may operate an ultralight vehicle within Class A, Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace or within the lateral boundaries of the surface area of Class E airspace designated for an airport unless that person has prior authorization from the ATC facility having jurisdiction over that airspace. (See 14 CFR part 103.)
Unmanned Free Balloons
Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, no person may operate an unmanned free balloon below 2,000 feet above the surface within the lateral boundaries of Class B, Class C, Class D, or Class E airspace designated for an airport. (See 14 CFR part 101.)
Unmanned Aircraft Systems
Regulations regarding unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) are currently being developed and are expected to be published by summer 2016 as 14 CFR part 107.
Parachute Jumps
No person may make a parachute jump, and no PIC may allow a parachute jump to be made from an aircraft, in or into Class A, Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace without, or in violation of, the terms of an ATC authorization issued by the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the airspace. (See 14 CFR part 105.)
Chapter Summary
This chapter introduces the various classifications of airspace and provides information on the requirements to operate in such airspace. For further information, consult the AIM and 14 CFR parts 71, 73, and 91.
Chapter 16
Navigation
Introduction
This chapter provides an introduction to cross-country flying under visual flight rules (VFR). It contains practical information for planning and executing cross-country flights for the beginning pilot.
Air navigation is the process of piloting an aircraft from one geographic position to another while monitoring one’s position as the flight progresses. It introduces the need for planning, which includes plotting the course on an aeronautical chart, selecting checkpoints, measuring distances, obtaining pertinent weather information, and computing flight time, headings, and fuel requirements. The methods used in this chapter include pilotage—navigating by reference to visible landmarks, dead reckoning—computations of direction and distance from a known position, and radio navigation—by use of radio aids.
Aeronautical Charts
An aeronautical chart is the road map for a pilot flying under VFR. The chart provides information that allows pilots to track their position and provides available information that enhances safety. The three aeronautical charts used by VFR pilots are:
• Sectional
• VFR Terminal Area
• World Aeronautical
A free catalog listing aeronautical charts and related publications including prices and instructions for ordering is available at the Aeronautical Navigation Products website: www.aeronav.faa.gov.
Sectional Charts
Sectional charts are the most common charts used by pilots today. The charts have a scale of 1:500,000 (1 inch = 6.86 nautical miles (NM) or approximately 8 statute miles (SM)), which allows for more detailed information to be included on th
e chart.
The charts provide an abundance of information, including airport data, navigational aids, airspace, and topography. Figure 16-1 is an excerpt from the legend of a sectional chart. By referring to the chart legend, a pilot can interpret most of the information on the chart. A pilot should also check the chart for other legend information, which includes air traffic control (ATC) frequencies and information on airspace. These charts are revised semiannually except for some areas outside the conterminous United States where they are revised annually.
VFR Terminal Area Charts
VFR terminal area charts are helpful when flying in or near Class B airspace. They have a scale of 1:250,000 (1 inch = 3.43 NM or approximately 4 SM). These charts provide a more detailed display of topographical information and are revised semiannually, except for several Alaskan and Caribbean charts. [Figure 16-2]
World Aeronautical Charts
World aeronautical charts are designed to provide a standard series of aeronautical charts, covering land areas of the world, at a size and scale convenient for navigation by moderate speed aircraft. They are produced at a scale of 1:1,000,000 (1 inch = 13.7 NM or approximately 16 SM). These charts are similar to sectional charts, and the symbols are the same except there is less detail due to the smaller scale. [Figure 16-3] These charts are revised annually except several Alaskan charts and the Mexican/Caribbean charts, which are revised every 2 years.