Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (Federal Aviation Administration)

by Federal Aviation Administration

  Empty-field myopia. Induced nearsightedness that is associated with flying at night, in instrument meteorological conditions and/or reduced visibility. With nothing to focus on, the eyes automatically focus on a point just slightly ahead of the airplane.

  EM wave. Electromagnetic wave.

  Encoding altimeter. A special type of pressure altimeter used to send a signal to the air traffic controller on the ground, showing the pressure altitude the aircraft is flying.

  Engine pressure ratio (EPR). The ratio of turbine discharge pressure divided by compressor inlet pressure, which is used as an indication of the amount of thrust being developed by a turbine engine.

  En route facilities ring. Depicted in the plan view of IAP charts, a circle which designates NAVAIDs, fixes, and intersections that are part of the en route low altitude airway structure.

  En route high-altitude charts. Aeronautical charts for en route instrument navigation at or above 18,000 feet MSL.

  En route low-altitude charts. Aeronautical charts for en route IFR navigation below 18,000 feet MSL.

  EPR. See engine pressure ratio.

  Equilibrium. A condition that exists within a body when the sum of the moments of all of the forces acting on the body is equal to zero. In aerodynamics, equilibrium is when all opposing forces acting on an aircraft are balanced (steady, unaccelerated flight conditions).

  Equivalent airspeed. Airspeed equivalent to CAS in standard atmosphere at sea level. As the airspeed and pressure altitude increase, the CAS becomes higher than it should be, and a correction for compression must be subtracted from the CAS.

  Evaporation. The transformation of a liquid to a gaseous state, such as the change of water to water vapor.

  Exhaust gas temperature (EGT). The temperature of the exhaust gases as they leave the cylinders of a reciprocating engine or the turbine section of a turbine engine.

  Expect-further-clearance (EFC). The time a pilot can expect to receive clearance beyond a clearance limit.

  Explosive decompression. A change in cabin pressure faster than the lungs can decompress. Lung damage is possible.

  F

  FA. See area forecast.

  FAA. Federal Aviation Administration.

  FAF. See final approach fix.

  False horizon. Inaccurate visual information for aligning the aircraft, caused by various natural and geometric formations that disorient the pilot from the actual horizon.

  FDI. See flight director indicator.

  Federal airways. Class E airspace areas that extend upward from 1,200 feet to, but not including, 18,000 feet MSL, unless otherwise specified.

  Feeder facilities. Used by ATC to direct aircraft to intervening fixes between the en route structure and the initial approach fix.

  Final approach. Part of an instrument approach procedure in which alignment and descent for landing are accomplished.

  Final approach fix (FAF). The fix from which the IFR final approach to an airport is executed, and which identifies the beginning of the final approach segment. An FAF is designated on government charts by a Maltese cross symbol for nonprecision approaches, and a lightning bolt symbol for precision approaches.

  Fixating. Staring at a single instrument, thereby interrupting the cross-check process.

  Fixed-pitch propellers. Propellers with fixed blade angles. Fixed-pitch propellers are designed as climb propellers, cruise propellers, or standard propellers.

  Fixed slot. A fixed, nozzle shaped opening near the leading edge of a wing that ducts air onto the top surface of the wing. Its purpose is to increase lift at higher angles of attack.

  FL. See flight level.

  Flameout. A condition in the operation of a gas turbine engine in which the fire in the engine goes out due to either too much or too little fuel sprayed into the combustors.

  Flaps. Hinged portion of the trailing edge between the ailerons and fuselage. In some aircraft ailerons and flaps are interconnected to produce full-span “flaperons.” In either case, flaps change the lift and drag on the wing.

  Floor load limit. The maximum weight the floor can sustain per square inch/foot as provided by the manufacturer.

  Flight configurations. Adjusting the aircraft control surfaces (including flaps and landing gear) in a manner that will achieve a specified attitude.

  Flight director indicator (FDI). One of the major components of a flight director system, it provides steering commands that the pilot (or the autopilot, if coupled) follows.

  Flight level (FL). A measure of altitude (in hundreds of feet) used by aircraft flying above 18,000 feet with the altimeter set at 29.92 "Hg.

  Flight management system (FMS). Provides pilot and crew with highly accurate and automatic long-range navigation capability, blending available inputs from long- and short-range sensors.

  Flight path. The line, course, or track along which an aircraft is flying or is intended to be flown.

  Flight patterns. Basic maneuvers, flown by reference to the instruments rather than outside visual cues, for the purpose of practicing basic attitude flying. The patterns simulate maneuvers encountered on instrument flights such as holding patterns, procedure turns, and approaches.

  Flight strips. Paper strips containing instrument flight information, used by ATC when processing flight plans.

  FMS. See flight management system.

  FOD. See foreign object damage.

  Fog. Cloud consisting of numerous minute water droplets and based at the surface; droplets are small enough to be suspended in the earth’s atmosphere indefinitely. (Unlike drizzle, it does not fall to the surface. Fog differs from a cloud only in that a cloud is not based at the surface, and is distinguished from haze by its wetness and gray color.)

  Force (F). The energy applied to an object that attempts to cause the object to change its direction, speed, or motion. In aerodynamics, it is expressed as F, T (thrust), L (lift), W (weight), or D (drag), usually in pounds.

  Foreign object damage (FOD). Damage to a gas turbine engine caused by some object being sucked into the engine while it is running. Debris from runways or taxiways can cause foreign object damage during ground operations, and the ingestion of ice and birds can cause FOD in flight.

  Form drag. The drag created because of the shape of a component or the aircraft.

  Frise-type aileron. Aileron having the nose portion projecting ahead of the hinge line. When the trailing edge of the aileron moves up, the nose projects below the wing’s lower surface and produces some parasite drag, decreasing the amount of adverse yaw.

  Front. The boundary between two different air masses.

  Frost. Ice crystal deposits formed by sublimation when temperature and dewpoint are below freezing.

  Fuel load. The expendable part of the load of the airplane. It includes only usable fuel, not fuel required to fill the lines or that which remains trapped in the tank sumps.

  Fundamental skills. Pilot skills of instrument cross-check, instrument interpretation, and aircraft control.

  Fuselage. The section of the airplane that consists of the cabin and/or cockpit, containing seats for the occupants and the controls for the airplane.

  G

  GAMA. General Aviation Manufacturers Association.

  Gimbal ring. A type of support that allows an object, such as a gyroscope, to remain in an upright condition when its base is tilted.

  Glideslope (GS). Part of the ILS that projects a radio beam upward at an angle of approximately 3° from the approach end of an instrument runway. The glideslope provides vertical guidance to aircraft on the final approach course for the aircraft to follow when making an ILS approach along the localizer path.

  Glideslope intercept altitude. The minimum altitude of an intermediate approach segment prescribed for a precision approach that ensures obstacle clearance.

  Global landing system (GLS). An instrument approach with lateral and vertical guidance with integrity limits (similar to barometric vertical navigation (BARO VNAV).

  Glo
bal navigation satellite system (GNSS). Satellite navigation system that provides autonomous geospatial positioning with global coverage. It allows small electronic receivers to determine their location (longitude, latitude, and altitude) to within a few meters using time signals transmitted along a line of sight by radio from satellites.

  Global positioning system (GPS). Navigation system that uses satellite rather than ground-based transmitters for location information.

  GLS. See global landing system.

  GNSS. See global navigation satellite system.

  Goniometer. As used in radio frequency (RF) antenna systems, a direction-sensing device consisting of two fixed loops of wire oriented 90° from each other, which separately sense received signal strength and send those signals to two rotors (also oriented 90°) in the sealed direction-indicating instrument. The rotors are attached to the direction-indicating needle of the instrument and rotated by a small motor until minimum magnetic field is sensed near the rotors.

  GPS. See global positioning system.

  GPS Approach Overlay Program. An authorization for pilots to use GPS avionics under IFR for flying designated existing nonprecision instrument approach procedures, with the exception of LOC, LDA, and SDF procedures.

  GPWS. See ground proximity warning system.

  Graveyard spiral. The illusion of the cessation of a turn while still in a prolonged, coordinated, constant rate turn, which can lead a disoriented pilot to a loss of control of the aircraft.

  Great circle route. The shortest distance across the surface of a sphere (the Earth) between two points on the surface.

  Ground adjustable trim tab. Non-movable metal trim tab on a control surface. Bent in one direction or another while on the ground to apply trim forces to the control surface.

  Ground effect. The condition of slightly increased air pressure below an airplane wing or helicopter rotor system that increases the amount of lift produced. It exists within approximately one wing span or one rotor diameter from the ground. It results from a reduction in upwash, downwash, and wingtip vortices, and provides a corresponding decrease in induced drag.

  Ground proximity warning system (GPWS). A system designed to determine an aircraft’s clearance above the Earth and provides limited predictability about aircraft position relative to rising terrain.

  Groundspeed. Speed over the ground, either closing speed to the station or waypoint, or speed over the ground in whatever direction the aircraft is going at the moment, depending upon the navigation system used.

  GS. See glideslope.

  GWPS. See ground proximity warning system.

  Gyroscopic precession. An inherent quality of rotating bodies, which causes an applied force to be manifested 90° in the direction of rotation from the point where the force is applied.

  H

  HAA. See height above airport.

  HAL. See height above landing.

  HAT. See height above touchdown elevation.

  Hazardous attitudes. Five aeronautical decision-making attitudes that may contribute to poor pilot judgment: anti-authority, impulsivity, invulnerability, machismo, and resignation.

  Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS). An en route FSS service providing continuously updated automated of hazardous weather within 150 nautical miles of selected VORs, available only in the conterminous 48 states.

  Head-up display (HUD). A special type of flight viewing screen that allows the pilot to watch the flight instruments and other data while looking through the windshield of the aircraft for other traffic, the approach lights, or the runway.

  Heading. The direction in which the nose of the aircraft is pointing during flight.

  Heading indicator. An instrument which senses airplane movement and displays heading based on a 360° azimuth, with the final zero omitted. The heading indicator, also called a directional gyro (DG), is fundamentally a mechanical instrument designed to facilitate the use of the magnetic compass. The heading indicator is not affected by the forces that make the magnetic compass difficult to interpret.

  Headwork. Required to accomplish a conscious, rational thought process when making decisions. Good decision-making involves risk identification and assessment, information processing, and problem solving.

  Height above airport (HAA). The height of the MDA above the published airport elevation.

  Height above landing (HAL). The height above a designated helicopter landing area used for helicopter instrument approach procedures.

  Height above touchdown elevation (HAT). The DA/DH or MDA above the highest runway elevation in the touchdown zone (first 3,000 feet of the runway).

  HF. High frequency.

  Hg. Abbreviation for mercury, from the Latin hydrargyrum.

  High performance aircraft. An aircraft with an engine of more than 200 horsepower.

  Histotoxic hypoxia. The inability of cells to effectively use oxygen. Plenty of oxygen is being transported to the cells that need it, but they are unable to use it.

  HIWAS. See Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service.

  Holding. A predetermined maneuver that keeps aircraft within a specified airspace while awaiting further clearance from ATC.

  Holding pattern. A racetrack pattern, involving two turns and two legs, used to keep an aircraft within a prescribed airspace with respect to a geographic fix. A standard pattern uses right turns; nonstandard patterns use left turns.

  Homing. Flying the aircraft on any heading required to keep the needle pointing to the 0° relative bearing position.

  Horizontal situation indicator (HSI). A flight navigation instrument that combines the heading indicator with a CDI, in order to provide the pilot with better situational awareness of location with respect to the courseline.

  Horsepower. The term, originated by inventor James Watt, means the amount of work a horse could do in one second. One horsepower equals 550 foot-pounds per second, or 33,000 foot-pounds per minute.

  Hot start. In gas turbine engines, a start which occurs with normal engine rotation, but exhaust temperature exceeds prescribed limits. This is usually caused by an excessively rich mixture in the combustor. The fuel to the engine must be terminated immediately to prevent engine damage.

  HSI. See horizontal situation indicator.

  HUD. See head-up display.

  Human factors. A multidisciplinary field encompassing the behavioral and social sciences, engineering, and physiology, to consider the variables that influence individual and crew performance for the purpose of optimizing human performance and reducing errors.

  Hung start. In gas turbine engines, a condition of normal light off but with rpm remaining at some low value rather than increasing to the normal idle rpm. This is often the result of insufficient power to the engine from the starter. In the event of a hung start, the engine should be shut down.

  Hydroplaning. A condition that exists when landing on a surface with standing water deeper than the tread depth of the tires. When the brakes are applied, there is a possibility that the brake will lock up and the tire will ride on the surface of the water, much like a water ski. When the tires are hydroplaning, directional control and braking action are virtually impossible. An effective anti-skid system can minimize the effects of hydroplaning.

  Hypemic hypoxia. A type of hypoxia that is a result of oxygen deficiency in the blood, rather than a lack of inhaled oxygen. It can be caused by a variety of factors. Hypemic means “not enough blood.”

  Hyperventilation. Occurs when an individual is experiencing emotional stress, fright, or pain, and the breathing rate and depth increase, although the carbon dioxide level in the blood is already at a reduced level. The result is an excessive loss of carbon dioxide from the body, which can lead to unconsciousness due to the respiratory system’s overriding mechanism to regain control of breathing.

  Hypoxia. A state of oxygen deficiency in the body sufficient to impair functions of the brain and other organs.

  Hypoxic hypoxia. This type of hypoxia is a
result of insufficient oxygen available to the lungs. A decrease of oxygen molecules at sufficient pressure can lead to hypoxic hypoxia.

  I

  IAF. See initial approach fix.

  IAP. See instrument approach procedures.

  IAS. See indicated airspeed.

  ICAO. See International Civil Aviation Organization.

  Ident. Air Traffic Control request for a pilot to push the button on the transponder to identify return on the controller’s scope.

  IFR. See instrument flight rules.

  ILS. See instrument landing system.

  ILS categories. Categories of instrument approach procedures allowed at airports equipped with the following types of instrument landing systems:

  ILS Category I: Provides for approach to a height above touchdown of not less than 200 feet, and with runway visual range of not less than 1,800 feet.

  ILS Category II: Provides for approach to a height above touchdown of not less than 100 feet and with runway visual range of not less than 1,200 feet.

  ILS Category IIIA: Provides for approach without a decision height minimum and with runway visual range of not less than 700 feet.

  ILS Category IIIB: Provides for approach without a decision height minimum and with runway visual range of not less than 150 feet.

  ILS Category IIIC: Provides for approach without a decision height minimum and without runway visual range minimum.

  IMC. See instrument meteorological conditions.

  Inclinometer. An instrument consisting of a curved glass tube, housing a glass ball, and damped with a fluid similar to kerosene. It may be used to indicate inclination, as a level, or, as used in the turn indicators, to show the relationship between gravity and centrifugal force in a turn.

  Indicated airspeed (IAS). Shown on the dial of the instrument airspeed indicator on an aircraft. Indicated airspeed (IAS) is the airspeed indicator reading uncorrected for instrument, position, and other errors. Indicated airspeed means the speed of an aircraft as shown on its pitot static airspeed indicator calibrated to reflect standard atmosphere adiabatic compressible flow at sea level uncorrected for airspeed system errors. Calibrated airspeed (CAS) is IAS corrected for instrument errors, position error (due to incorrect pressure at the static port) and installation errors.