The achievements of the regime, Czoernig, K. Frh. von, Oes. Neugestaltung 1848–58, Stuttgart, 1858, a magnificent comprehensive work by an official statistician, with detailed data on almost every aspect of the regime, especially in the fields of finance, economics, communications, etc., but recording also administrative innovations, educational reforms, even Army organization. The system at work, general, Rogge, op. cit., and Mayr, J. I., ed., Das Tagebuch des Polizeiministers Kempen, Vienna, 1931. Eisenmann overrates the importance of Bach and underrates the role of Kübeck.
The Concordat, etc.: Weinzierl-Fischer, E., *Die Oe. Konkordate von 1855 und 1933, Vienna, 1960; Wolfsgruber, C., Joseph Othmar, Kardinal Rauscher, Freiburg, 1888. Good short sketch of Rauscher by Till in Gestalter, pp. 347 ff. The linguistic question in education, Frommelt, K., Die Sprachenfrage in oe. Unterrichtswesen 1848–1859, Graz, 1963, useful work, well-documented. Education in general, Ficker, A., Bericht über das oe. Unterrichtswesen, Vienna, 1873.
The land reform: texts of Patents in Czoernig; results for Western Lands, Grünberg, Grundentlastung (above). Servitudes, consolidation, etc., article by Schiff, W., in L.u.F. I, pp. 81–201. For Hungary, Bernáth, G., Az Absolutizmus Földtehérmentesitése Mg.-on (The Agrarian Reform of Absolutism in H.), Bp., 1936.
Finance, general, Beer, op. cit., and Czoernig. For the role of mobile capital, the books of Scheffer and Franz (above) and Corti’s Rothschilds.
The provinces: for Bohemia, Rogge and Bretholz (above). For Galicia, Sommergruber, op. cit. For Lombardy-Venetia, Benedikt and Sandona (above), the various biographies of Radetzky, and the Italian historians. Many details also in Rogge. For Hungary, besides Berzeviczy, op. cit., there is a glowing account of the achievements of the regime, ordered by Bach, Anon., Rückblick auf die Jüngste Entwicklungsperiode U.s, Vienna, 1857, reprinted 1903, answered by Szechenyi, Blick auf den Anonymen Rückblick, 1857, reprinted, ed. Tolnai, V., Bp., 1925. Rogge is full on Hungary. For Deák, Ferenczy, op. cit. The Old Conservatives, Wertheimer, E., Zur Gesch. der u. Altkonservativen, Ungarische Rundschau, 1913, pp. 37 ff., and 1914, pp. 52 ff. The emigration, Kossuth’s own Memories of my Exile, London, 1880, 2 vols; his speeches in London were also printed. See also Denes, J., Great Britain and Kossuth, Bp., 1937, and id., Die u. Emigration und der Krieg im Orient, ibid., 1939. Kosáry, D., *A History of H., Cleveland, 1941, is good on the emigration; also useful, vol I of Wertheimer’s Andrássy (below). For the Crimean War, Friedjung, Der Krimkrieg, Vienna, 1907, also some interesting details by Heller, E., in von Steinitz, op. cit. But see the latest general diplomatic histories. The Austrian side of the preliminaries to the 1859 war is best given in the various biogs. of Franz Joseph; there is no large-scale diplomatic study. The official military history of the campaign, is that of the General Staff, K. u. K. Generalstab, ed., Der Krieg in Italien, Vienna, 1872–6, 3 vols. Shortly, Friedjung, Kampf um den Vorherrschaft (below), with references to other literature.
CHAPTER XI
Eight Years of Experiment
A. The German question. Friedjung, Kampf um die Vorherrschaft in Deutschland, 10th ed., Berlin, 2 vols, 1927, classic work, but the diplomatic history, which is relatively short, has now been largely superseded by vols 3 and 4 of Srbik’s Deutsche Einheit, Munich, 1935, and his Quellen zur d. Politik Oe. 1859–66, Berlin, 1934–8, 6 vols. See also the German and general historians, and Engel-Jánosy, J., Graf Rechberg, Munich, 1927. The war of 1866, Friedjung, op. cit., and many other works, including the official history by the A.H. General Staff, Oe.s Kämpfe im Jahre 1866, Vienna, 1867–9, 5 vols. The Benedek controversy: Friedjung edited Benedek’s Nachgelassene Papiere, and much literature is based on this work and on his Kampf, which is very detailed on the military side. Later, Priestland, J., Vae Victis, London, 1934, sympathetic to B., shows careful research into specialist works, but wildly inaccurate background. Far better on technical side, and also more judicious, Regele, O., Feldzeugmeister B., Vienna, 1960, most valuable for Austria’s military preparations, or lack thereof, and for the responsibility for the deficiencies. Donauraum, XI.I (1966) has interesting articles by Regele on the military side of 1866, and by Engel-Jánosi on the diplomatic. See abo Jedlicska’s essay on the Archduke Albrecht in Gestalter.
B. Internal affairs. Besides the standard histories and vol II of Rogge, op. cit., there is a good short general sketch by Fournier, Oe.U.s Neubau, Vienna, 1917. The top-level story in great detail in Redlich, Problem, I/II and vol II, and Eisenmann, op. cit. For the negotiations with Hungary, further, Beust, Aus drei Vierteljahrhunderten, Stuttgart, 3 vols, 1887–9, very uninformative, vol III of Ferenczy, op. cit., vol I of Wertheimer, E., Graf Julius Andrássy, Berlin, 1910, 3 vols, a major work, and Corti’s Elisabeth (above). Also Fellner, F., Das Februarpatent von 1861, Vienna, 1959. Texts of the Diploma and Patent, and of the Patents of 1865, in Bernatzik, op. cit., pp. 185–330. Exhaustive comments in Redlich and Eisenmann.
For Cis-Leithania, G. Kolmer’s Parlament und Verfassung in Oe., Vienna, 1902, 8 vols, begins to function seriously from 1861 on. This is a very full summary of the proceedings of the Austrian Reichsrat and Landtage, invaluable for those who need detail; also Czedik, E., Zur Gesch. der k.u.k. oe. Ministerien 1861–1916, Vienna, 1917, 4 vols, with pen-portraits of Ministers. These two works, and Rogge, give between them every detail man could want of party and Parliamentary manoeuverings in Cis-Leithania. For the nature of German bourgeois Liberalism in the 1860s, Franz and Eder (above); Charmatz, Deutsch-oe. Politik, Vienna, 1910, an acute and thoughtful work; vol I of E. von Plener’s Erinnerungen, Stuttgart, 1911–13, 3 vols, and biographies of Schmerling, Giskra, Fischof, Plener, Herbst, and others in the collections. For the Viennese Jewry, Tietze, H., Die Juden Wiens, Vienna, 1933. For national movements in Cis-Leithania, see the next section.
Hungary, internal. Berzeviczy, op. cit., up to 1865; but the Hungarian historians concentrate inordinately on the ‘issue of public law’. On internal conditions, Rogge is as informative as any of them. The negotiations with the nationalities: Nagy, I., A Nemzetiségi Törvény a m. Parlament elött (The Nationalities Law before the H. Parliament), Bp., 1930. Translation of the 1861 Report in Seton-Watson, R. W., Racial Problems in H.; see also Macartney, C. A., H. and Her Successors, Oxford, 2nd. ed., 1965. Eötvös’s own main work on the nationalities question is his Nationalitätenfrage, Pest, 1865, but he touched on the problem in others of his main books, notably his Einfluss der Herrschenden Ideen, etc., Leipzig, 1851–4, 2 vols. For recent discussions of his views on the subject, which changed frequently, see Weber, J., Eötvös und die u. Nationalitätenfrage, Munich, 1966, giving a general view (influenced by Steinacker) of the problem; also Macartney, C. A., The H. Nationalities Law, in Donauraum, Oct. 1967. For Croatia, Seton-Watson, R. W., Southern Slav Question (above), with tr. of the Nagodba. For Transylvania, besides works already listed, Mester, M., Az Autonom Erdély (Autonomous Transylvania), Bp., 1936.
Texts of the Hungarian Law XII and of the Austrian ‘December Constitution’ in Bernatzik; of the former, also in Drage, Austria-Hungary (below). Judgments on the Compromise, Eisenmann, op. cit., Žölger, L. V., Der staatsrechtliche Ausgleich, etc., Leipzig, 1910, Andrássy, G., Ungarns Ausgleich, etc. (tr. from the Hungarian), Leipzig, 1897, Andrássy’s case for his own work, and innumerable others.
CHAPTER XII
Intermezzo
Besides the general diplomatic histories, see Erichsen, E., Die deutsche Politik des Grafen Beust, etc., Kiel, 1927. Beust himself is little help. The best short account of Austrian policy in the crisis is that of Srbik in his essay on John in Aus. Oe.s Vergangenheit, Salzburg, 1949, pp. 67–98. See also Wertheimer’s Andrássy, I, pp. 443–531. For the domestic history of the Hohenwart crisis, Schäffle, Aus meinem Leben, Berlin, 1903, 2 vols; but see Friedjung, Historische Aufsätze, p. 469. From the Czech angle, especially Denis, II, pp. 499–533 and Münch, pp. 312–63; from the German-Austrian centralist angle, Rogge, op. cit., vol III, passim. Two contemporary works are still of great interest: Pala
cký, Die oe. Staatsidee Prague, 1866, and Fischof, A., Oe. und die Burgschaften seines Bestandes, Vienna, 1869.
CHAPTER XIII
The Foreign Relations of the Monarchy (1871–1903)
I leave most of this field to the professional diplomatic historians. Charmatz is handy, but written without knowledge of the most secret documents. Vol I of Albertini, L.’s great Origins of the War of 1914, London, 1952–4, 3 vols, covers this period, as does Langer, W. L., European Alliances and Alignments, 1871–1890, N.Y., 1931. For the early years, Wertheimer’s Andrássy and Leidner, L., Die Aussenpolitik Oe.U.s 1870–9, Kiel, 1934. Bosnia: Herkolović, J., Vorgesch. der Okkupation Bosniens, etc., Agram (Zagreb), 1906; Fournier, Wie wir zu Bosnien kamen, Vienna, 1909, and the standard works, especially Rupp, G. H., A Wavering Friendship, Cambridge, Mass., 1941, and Medlicott, W., The Congress of Berlin, etc., London, 1938.
Later period: Pribram, A. F., Die Geheimverträge Oe, Us, etc., English tr. The Secret Treaties of A. H., 1879–1914, Cambridge, Mass., 1920–2, 2 vols; Fellner, F., Der Dreibund, Munich, 1960, short but excellent; Engel-Jánosi, F., Oe. und der Vatikan, Graz, 1960, 2 vols.
There are essays on Kálnoky in the N.Oe. B. and by Friedjung in his Historische Aufsätze; nothing at all substantial on either Haymerle or Goluchowski.
CHAPTER XIV
Cis-Leithania under Dualism
Political History, 1871–1903. Hantsch, Gesch., pp. 393–492, gives a brilliant picture. Charmatz, as usual, is adequate. May comes in at this point. For more detail, Kolmer, vols II–VII, Czedik, vols II–III and Hickmann, A. L., Der oe. Reichsrat, etc., 1877–1901, Vienna, 1901. Redlich’s, Corti’s and Tschuppik’s lives of Francis Joseph are often valuable. Few full-length biographies, but sketches of Taaffe, Koerber and some others in the collections listed in Section I. For the Auersperg Ministry, also Rogge, Oe. seit der Katastrophe Hohenwart – Beust, Leipzig, 1879, 2 vols. For the Taaffe era, Skedl, E., Der politische Nachlass des Grafen T., Vienna, 1922, and Jenks, W. A., *A. under the Iron Ring, Charlottesville, 1963. For the Badeni era, Sutter, op. cit. The best-known memoirs are those of Plener (above) and Sieghart, R., Die letzten Jahre einer Grossmacht, Berlin, 1932, important for the intrigues behind the scenes, in which S. took a great part, but subjective and spiteful; see the no less malicious description of him by Steed, op. cit., pp. 143–4.
Economic and Social History, 1848–1903. Both Zöllner and M.K.P. have excellent short accounts and admirable bibs, but both concentrate heavily on Vienna and German-Austria. General accounts in Benedikt, H., die Wirtschaftliche Entwicklung in der F.J. Zeit (quoted as Benedikt, W.E.), Vienna, 1958, anecdotal; Drage, G., Austria-Hungary, London, 1909, very thorough and informative work, inexplicably forgotten; Mayer, H., ed., *100 Jahre oe. Wirtschaftsentwicklung (quoted as 100 Jahre), Vienna, 1949, valuable chapters on financial, monetary and commercial policy. Agriculture, L.u.F., above; Strakosch, S. von, Die Grundlagen der Agrarwirtschaft in Oe., Vienna, 1916, and see the bibs., Industry, Die Grossindustre Oe.s, collective work, 1898, 6 vols.
The peasants: for the post-1848 operation, see above, Section VIII. L.u.F. also contains contributions (some of them reprinted separately) on the effects of the Liberal legislation of 1868 (by H. von Schullern), attempts at agrarian reform (by M. Erth), and the history of agr. administration (by Dr. von Herz). Sommeregger, F., Wege und Ziele der oe. Agrarpolitik, Vienna, 1912. Drage goes deeply into the decline of the peasantry; see also Tiefen, G. W., Die Besitzenden und Besitzlosen in Oe., Vienna, 1907, Bauer, O., Der Kampf um Wald und Weide, Vienna, 1925, by the Socialist leader, and Macartney, C. A., The Social Revolution in Austria, Cambridge, 1926.
Industrial labour: conditions, Drage’s is one of the best single accounts known to me in any language. Material also in the Social Democrat histories (below), and in Brügel, L., Soziale Gesetzgebung in Oe. 1848–1918, Leipzig, 1919.
Emigration: Nat. Bureau of Econ. Research, ‘International Migration’, vol XIV, 1929, figures, and XVIII, 1931, ‘interpretations’.
Education, general, Strakosch-Grossman, G., op. cit.
May, op. cit., has some interesting pages on social forces in the old Austria; my account is parallel to his, not derived from it. The picture given by W. Steed, op. cit., is brilliant. Of the standard histories, that of Hantsch (II, 426 ff.) is the most perceptive in this respect. The disintegration of Liberalism well described by Eder, op. cit., and Charmatz, D.Oe. Politik (below), and Plener’s memoirs are an unconscious confession of it.
For the new forces in general, besides Hantsch, a good chapter by Wandruschka, * ‘Oe.s Politische Struktur’, in Benedikt, ed., *Gesch. der Republik Oe., Vienna, 1954, pp. 289ff. Interesting also Fuchs, A., Geistige Strömungen in Oe., 1867–1918, Vienna, 1949; Schneefuss, W., Demokratie im alten Oe., Klagenfurt, 1949. Conservative and clerical forces and movements, Allmayer-Beck, C., Conservatismus in Oe., Munich, 1959, short and rather general; also Vodka, op. cit. Christian Socialism, the latest works are: Skalnik, L., Dr Karl Lueger, Vienna, 1952, popular; Allmayer-Beck, Vogelsang, Vienna, 1952 (also sketch of V. by the same hand in N.Oe. B.); Funder, A., Von Gestern bis Heute, Vienna, 1952; id., Aufbruch zur Christlichen Sozialreform, ibid., 1953 (biography of Schindler). Social Democracy: Brügel, L., Gesch. der S.D., Vienna, 1922 ff., 5 vols, much information, badly put together; Deutsch, J., Gesch. der oe. Arbeiterbewegung, Vienna, 3rd ed., 1947; Hannak, J., Im Sturm eines Jahrhundertes, Vienna, 1948, popular. Biography of V. Adler by Ermers, M., Vienna, 1932; also sketches in Charmatz, Lebensbilder, and N.Oe. B. Good sketch of the beginnings of the movement in Charmatz, Innere Gesch. Oes. II, 28ff. The Trade Unions, Kienner, F., Die oe. Gewerkschaften, Vienna, 2 vols, 1951–3.
Nationality and its Problems
Statistics: Waber, L., Die Zahlenmässige Entwicklung der Völker Oe. 1846–1910, Brünn, 1916, a careful analysis; appendix on Hungary.
Legislation: Hugelmann, K., ed., Das Nationalitätenrecht des alten Oe., Vienna, 1934, exhaustive and most valuable work, primarily a compendium of legislation, but contains also much information on political movements. Valuable material also in Fischel, Sprachenrecht (above), and id., Materialien zur oe. Sprachenfrage, Vienna, 1902, valuable collection of petitions, Parliamentary debates, etc.
General Surveys: Kann, The Multinational Empire (above); Auerbach, Races et nationalités (above), Samassa, P., Der Völkerstreit im Habsburger Staat, Leipzig, 1910; Hertz, F., Nationalgeist und Politik, Zürich, 1936; Macartney, C. A., National States and National Minorities, Oxford, 1934, Hantsch, H., Die Nationalitätenfrage im alten Oe., Vienna, 1953.
For other general works, see Section XVII, F, below.
Social Democracy and the Nationalities, Mommsen, H., *Die Sozial-demokratie und die nationale Frage, etc., Vienna, 1963, very full.
The Germans: Charmatz, R., Deutsch – Oe. Politik, Leipzig, 1907, much material. Patzelt, J., Deutsche Politik in Oe., Vienna, 1912, very useful. Molisch, A., Gesch. der deutsch-nationalen Bewegung in Oe., Jena, 1926, unclear, and id., Briefe zur deutschen Politik in Oe. 1848–1918, Vienna, 1934, very occasionally important. Perceptive but very short, Wandruschka ap. Benedikt (above).
The Czechs and Bohemia, besides Denis and Münch, the latter, especially, excellent, Wiskemann, E., *Czechs and Germans, Oxford, 1938; Plaschka, L. G., Von Palacký bis Pekar, Vienna, 1955. The paper on the Czechs by Havranek, J., in A.H. Yearbook, 1967, throws interesting light on the economic and social factors. Much information in Suttner, op. cit., and in Fischel, Panslawismus.
The Poles: Galicia. Bienaimée, I., La Diéte de Galicie, etc., Paris, 1910, political; Estreicher, S., Galicia in the Period of Autonomy, in Cambridge Hist. of Poland, vol II (above) and the papers in A.H. Yearbook, 1967. The Ruthenes, Fischel; also Romantschuk, D., Die Ruthenen und ihre Gegner in Galizien, Vienna, 1902, and A.H. Yearbook, 1967. The University Library in Vienna contains about twenty theses on the Ruthenes, but none of them seems ever to have been printed. The Slovenes: still nothing comprehensive, but much can be fished out of the works of Hugelma
nn and Suttner. The Italians: Kramer, H., *Die Italiener unter der Oe.U. Monarchie, strongly sympathetic to Austria. Older works, Veiter, T., die Italiener in der oe.u. Monarchie, Vienna, 1905, and Mayr, M., Der Irredentismus, Innsbruck, 2nd. ed., 1907. Very recent, Huter, F., ed., *Südtirol, Innsbruck, 1965, a large Sammelwerk with valuable contributions on Italian nationalism and on the legal position of the Italians in the Monarchy. The bib. gives also works from the Italian side. The Roumanians, Prokopowitsch, op. cit.
CHAPTER XV
Hungary under Dualism
A. General political history. Rogge still regards Hungary as part of the Monarchy, and covers its internal history up to 1879 m vol II of his Oe. seit der Katastrophe (above). The later ‘standard’ Austrian historians simply ignore the place, and in general, practically everything written on Dualist Hungary by German-Austrians or by foreigners dependent on them is valueless, less on account of its prejudice (although this is almost invariable) than of its incomprehension. Foreign works which have taken their material from Hungarian informants fall into the opposite pit. Miskolczy, U. in der Habsburger-Monarchie (above) contrives to be fair to both sides, but is rather unfactual. For details it is necessary to go after all to Hungarian writers, especially Szekfü’s M. Történet (above) and Gratz, G., *A Dualizmus Kora (The Age of Dualism), Bp., 1934, 2 vols, excellent on Parliamentary history and on personalities, although not always accurate on dates, etc. Pethö, A., Világostól Trianonig (From Világos to Trianon), Bp., 3rd ed., 1925, is strongly ‘Independence’. Merei, G., M. politikai Pártprogrammok (H. political Party Programmes) is a useful handbook. Szekfü’s Három Nemzedék (above) is a gloomy but brilliant piece of meditation. The speeches of Deák, Szilágy, Apponyi and others have been edited in the original Hungarian, and there are some political memoirs in the same language, but the shortened English ed. of Apponyi’s memoirs is valueless. In English, two chs. (10 and 11) in May, op. cit., and shorter in Macartney, Hungary, a Short History (above), and id. October 15th, Edinburgh, 2nd. ed., 1961.
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