by Eckart Frahm
Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Notes on Contributors
Acknowledgments
Introduction Aims and Scope of this Book
Assyrian Civilization and its Study: Some Fundamentals
Trends in Research on Ancient Assyria and their Ideological Background
The Assyrian Cultural Heritage Crisis
References
PART I: Geography and History CHAPTER 1: Physical and Cultural Landscapes of Assyria Introduction
Physical Environment of Assyria
Cultural Landscapes: Past Research and Methods
Emergent Landscapes of the Early Bronze Age
Imperial Landscapes of the Neo‐Assyrian Period
Conclusions and Future Prospects
Acknowledgments
References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 2: “Assyria” in the Third Millennium BCE Introduction
Regionalization (3200–2700 BCE)
The Second Urban Revolution (2700–2400 BCE)
The Ebla World‐System (2400–2300 BCE)
Merchants and Empires (2300–2000 BCE)
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 3: The Old Assyrian Period (20th–18th Century BCE) Sources, Rulers, and Chronology
Old Assyrian History
The Political Institutions of Ashur
The End of the Old Assyrian Period
Abbreviations
References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 4: Economy, Society, and Daily Life in the Old Assyrian Period Introduction
Ashur and Kaniš
Slaves
The Assyrian Family
Economy and Daily Life
References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 5: The Transition Period (17th to 15th Century BCE) Two King Lists and the Period after Šamši‐Adad I
Signs of Prosperity
Mittanian Dominion
References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 6: The Middle Assyrian Period (14th to 11th Century BCE) Assyria Joins the Scene
The First Half of the 13th Century BCE
Territorial Expansion and Consolidation: A First Attempt
The Decline of Power in the Period after Tukulti‐Ninurta I
Territorial Expansion and Consolidation: A Second Attempt
Concluding Remarks
Abbreviations
References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 7: Economy, Society, and Daily Life in the Middle Assyrian Period The Middle Assyrian State
The King
The Royal Palace
The Administrative Structure of the Middle Assyrian Kingdom
The Military
Recruitment and Labor Administration
Taxation
Middle Assyrian Society: Social Strata
The Middle Assyrian Family
Ethnic Groups
Abbreviations
References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 8: The Neo‐Assyrian Period (ca. 1000–609 BCE) Introduction
Chronology and Sources
The Crisis Years (ca. 1050–935)
The Reconquista Period (934–824)
Internal Conflicts and Fragmentation of Power: The Age of the “Magnates” (823–745)
Genesis of an Empire: Assyria from Tiglath‐pileser III to Sargon II (744–705)
Imperial Heydays: From Sennacherib to Assurbanipal (704–631)
Assyria’s Downfall (631–609)
The “Afterlife” and Legacy of the Assyrian Empire
Abbreviation
References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 9: Economy, Society, and Daily Life in the Neo‐Assyrian Period The Crucible of Mass Deportation
The Heartland of Assyria
The Provinces
The Nineveh Region
Farmers and Pastoralists
Four Vignettes of Neo‐Assyrian Life
Abbreviations
References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 10: Post‐Imperial Assyria Introduction
The Early Post‐imperial Period
Restructuring and Revitalization: The Seleucid and Arsacid Periods
References
Further Reading
PART II: The Fringes of Empire CHAPTER 11: Assyria and the North The Eastern Taurus Mountains
Eastern Anatolia and Urartu
The Western Taurus and Central Anatolia
References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 12: Assyria and the East The Assyrian Expansion in the East
Western Iran beyond Assyria’s Provinces
Elam and Anšan
References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 13: Assyria and the West Introduction
The Levant until the Time of Tiglath‐pileser III: Exploration and Exploitation
The Levant at the Time of Tiglath‐pileser III: The Great Annexation
The Levant after Tiglath‐pileser III: The Taming of the Insurgents
References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 14: Assyria and the Far West Abbreviations
References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 15: Assyria and the South Introduction
The Third and Second Millennium BCE
The First Millennium BCE
Abbreviations
References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 16: Assyria and the Far South Introduction
From the Beginnings to the Reign of Tiglath‐pileser III
Sargon II and Sennacherib
From Esarhaddon to the Downfall of the Assyrian Empire
Conclusion
Abbreviations
References
Further Reading
PART III: Elements of Assyrian Civilization CHAPTER 17: Languages and Writing Systems in Assyria Languages
Writing Systems
Main Features of Assyrian Grammar
Abbreviations
References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 18: Assyrian Religion The City of Ashur and its Temples in the Third Millennium BCE
The God Assur
The Theology of Assur and His Elevation to Universal Dominion
Assur, His Earthly Representative, and the Community of Gods
Politics as Religion and Religion as Politics
Swan Song
References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 19: Assyrian Literature Old Assyrian Period
Middle Assyrian Period
Neo‐Assyrian Period
References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 20: Assyrian Scholarship and Scribal Culture in Ashur Assyrian Interest in Babylonian Scholarship
Middle Assyrian Scholarship
The Alleged Royal Library of Tiglath‐pileser I
Middle Assyrian Scholarly Families
The Scholars of Ashur between the Ninth and the Seventh Century bce
References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 21: Assyrian Scholarship and Scribal Culture in Kalu and Nineveh Introduction
Libraries of Neo‐Assyrian Scholars and Temples
The Growing Role of Divination and Scholarship for the Neo‐Assyrian Kings
How the Neo‐Assyrian Kings Obtained Access to Babylonian Scholarship
Assembling Tablets for Assurbanipal’s Library in Nineveh
The Archaeology of the Royal Library in Nineveh
The Tablets of the Library Collection in Nineve
h Written by Babylonian Scholars
The Tablets of the Library Collection in Nineveh Written by Assyrian Scholars
Abbreviations
References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 22: Assyrian Legal Traditions The Many Strands of Assyrian Legal Traditions
Old Assyrian Legal Practices
Middle Assyrian Legal Practices
Neo‐Assyrian Legal Practices
References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 23: Assyrian Cities and Architecture Introduction
Ashur in the Third Millennium BCE
The Old‐Assyrian Period
The Transition Period (17th to 15th centuries BCE)
The Middle Assyrian Period
The Neo‐Assyrian Period
References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 24: Assyrian Art Introduction
Ashur in the Third Millennium BCE
The Old Assyrian Period
The Middle Assyrian Period
The Neo‐Assyrian Period: Sculpture and Painting
The Neo‐Assyrian Period: Portable Arts
References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 25: Assyrian Technology Introduction
City Planning and Monumental Buildings
Hydraulic Engineering
Bridges
Transportation of Materials and Heavy Loads
Abbreviations
References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 26: Assyrian Warfare References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 27: Thoughts on the Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Kingship Translatio imperii
World Empires: Size vs. “Mission”
Enlarging Assyria
Prerequisites of the Imperial Project
Imperial Practice and Theory
Destruction and Reconstruction
The Advantages of Direct Rule
References
Further Reading
PART IV: The Afterlife and Rediscovery of Assyria CHAPTER 28: Assyria in Late Babylonian Sources Assyria in the Royal Inscriptions of the Babylonian Empire
Assyria in Everyday Documents
Assyria in the View of the Persians
Hellenistic Babylonia Remembers Assyria
References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 29: Assyria in the Hebrew Bible Introduction
Terminology
History
Stories
Political Ideology and Law
More Immediate Assyrian Influences on Religion and Culture in Israel and Judah?
Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 30: Assyria in Classical Sources Assyria’s Changing Image in Greek and Roman Texts
Assyrian Rulers in Classical Sources
References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 31: The Archaeological Exploration of Assyria Botta, Layard, and the Rediscovery of Assyria in the Nineteenth Century
Twentieth Century Excavations of Assyrian Sites
References
Further Reading
CHAPTER 32: Assyrian Christians Introduction
Assyria and Assyrian in Pre‐Modern Syriac Sources
Assyrian Christians in Nineteenth‐Century Literature from the West
Assyrian Identity and the Church of the East
Assyrian Identity and the Greater Syriac Heritage
Conclusion
Appendix: The Churches of the Syriac Heritage
Acknowledgments
Abbreviation
References
Further Reading
List of Assyrian Kings
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 03 Table 3.1 The Old Assyrian part of the Assyrian King List
Chapter 05 Table 5.1 Names of rulers in AKL, KAV 14, and the Puzur‐Sîn inscription
Chapter 17 Table 17.1 Independent personal pronouns
Table 17.2 Independent possessive pronouns
Table 17.3 Pronominal suffixes
Table 17.4 Noun declension
Table 17.5 Adjectival declension
Table 17.6 Verbal prefixes and suffixes (long final vowels are used in OA/MA; in NA, however, these are shortened)
Table 17.7 Verbal classes
Table 17.8 Finite forms in the basic or G‐stem
Table 17.9 Commands and requests
Table 17.10 Stative
Chapter 21 Table 21.1 Text genres found in the Neo‐Assyrian Libraries in Kalu, uzirina, and Nineveh (here only the ones written in Babylonian ductus)
Table 21.2 Divinatory texts from Nineveh written in Babylonian ductus
Table 21.3 Religious texts from Nineveh written in Babylonian ductus
List of Illustrations
Chapter 01 Figure 1.1 Topography, hydrology, and major sites of Assyria (northern Iraq, northeastern Syria, and southeastern Turkey).
Figure 1.2 EBA sites and linear trackways in the region of Tell Brak and Tell Beydar (based on Ur 2010b Map 3).
Figure 1.3 The evolution from nucleated to dispersed settlement in the Hamoukar and North Jazira Project areas (based on data from Wilkinson and Tucker 1995, Ur 2010b). A. Urban settlement and trackways in the later EBA, ca. 2600–2000 BCE; B. Rural settlement in the Iron Age (early 1st millennium BCE).
Figure 1.4 Sites, canals, and other features in the Assyrian imperial core.
Figure 1.5 Austen Henry Layard exploring Sennacherib’s monumental relief at Khinis, as depicted by Frederick Cooper.
Chapter 02 Figure 2.1 Map of Northern Mesopotamia, 3000–2000 BCE, with archaeological sites mentioned in the text.
Figure 2.2 Leilan Lower Town South, 1989, Worker’s Neighborhood (ca. 2300–2200 BCE).
Chapter 03 Figure 3.1 Schematic illustration of the movement of goods in the Old Assyrian overland trade
Figure 3.2 Assur and the political world of Northern Mesopotamia during the Šamši‐Adad period
Figure 3.3a Seal of Sargon, son of Ikunum, ensí of Assur. Photo of Kt c/k 1389 (T. Özgüç 2003: 19 no. 5). Photo kindly supplied by the excavator, T. Özgüç.
Figure 3.3b Seal of Assur, of the nisḫatu‐tax, of the City Hall
Chapter 04 Figure 4.1 Anatolia during the Old Assyrian period.
Figure 4.2 The Old Assyrian letter Kt 88/k 625. Ankara, Anadolu Medeniyetleri Müzesi.
Figure 4.3 An Old Assyrian letter comprising a main tablet and a small second one preserved together in their sealed envelope. Kt 93/k 211, Ankara, Anadolu Medeniyetleri Müzesi.
Figure 4.4 Private houses in the lower town level II, reconstruction.
Chapter 06 Figure 6.1 The political landscape of the Middle Assyrian period.
Chapter 07 Figure 7.1 Conscription and labor organization in Middle Assyrian times.
Chapter 08 Figure 8.1 Metal brazier with turrets and wheels. The king, while keeping warm, would gaze at what looked like a conquered city on fire. Kalḫu, Fort Shalmaneser, Neo‐Assyrian period.
Figure 8.2 Map illustrating the various stages of the expansion of the Neo‐Assyrian state.
Figure 8.3 Letter to the Assyrian king Esarhaddon reporting a conspiracy in the city of Ashur (YBC 11382).
Chapter 09 Figure 9.1 A family of deportees leaving a captured Babylonian city on an ox‐cart: a man (boy?) and two women, one carrying a bag with her possessions. Detail from the wall decoration of Tiglath‐pileser III’s Central Palace in Kalḫu, later reused in Esarhaddon's Southwest Palace. British Museum, ANE 118882.
Figure 9.2 The Neo‐Assyrian provinces, with the position of Ashur, Nineveh, Arba’il, Kalḫu, and Dur‐Šarrukin marked by asterisks. The dashed lines indicate the provincial boundaries, but note that these are often hypothetical. For details see Radner 2006.
Chapter 10 Figure 10.1 Sites of the Late Assyrian to Arsacid periods mentioned in the text. Map by
S. R. Hauser based on a topographical map by M. Grosch, SFB 586.
Figure 10.2 The sacred precincts of Ashur and Hatra in the first centuries AD.
Chapter 17 Figure 17.1 Three Assyrian letters (obverse). Left: The Old Assyrian letter BM 115199; Middle: Cast of the Middle Assyrian letter TCH 92.G.152; Right: The Neo‐Assyrian letter ND 2703;
Figure 17.2 Assyrian and Aramaic scribes as depicted on a Neo‐Assyrian relief.
Figure 17.3 Assyrian‐Aramaic triangular corn‐loan docket (after Fales 1986, fig. 3).
Chapter 18 Figure 18.1 View from the roof of the temple of Assur westwards towards the ziggurat and the northern part of the city of Ashur; reconstruction.
Figure 18.2 King Sennacherib, depicted twice, worshipping the god Assur and his wife Mullissu. Assur is standing on a mušuššu‐dragon, a feature adopted from the cult of Marduk of Babylon. Khinnis, “Großes Relief.”
Chapter 21 Figure 21.1 A colophon with the name of Assurbanipal added in ink on a cuneiform tablet from Nineveh. K. 11055 + D.T. 273.
Figure 21.2 Libraries and archives located on Kuyunjik (drawn by J.C. Fincke, after Reade 2000: 407–18, 421–7, and Smith 1875: 94–102, 138–43).
Chapter 23 Figure 23.1 Ashur, city plan; adapted by the author from Andrae 1938: Beilage.
Figure 23.2 Nineveh, plan of the mound of Kuyunjik.
Figure 23.3 Kalḫu (modern Nimrud), plan of the citadel.
