by Eckart Frahm
The main god was Assur, with whom the king of Ashur had special ties. The Assyrians had to take oaths on the weapon of Assur (patrum, šugariā’um; Donbaz 2001), which was kept in the sacred precinct (ḫamrum), while women took oaths on the tambourine of the goddess Ištar (Michel 1997c; forthcoming: no. 244–5). Girls consecrated to the god Assur did not belong to his temple but lived independently, perhaps nearby, certainly praying to the deity; but otherwise, we know nothing about their religious duties (see above, “Consecrated women”).
The temples of Adad, Assur, Ištar, and Išḫara served as warehouses for merchandise and votive offerings that they managed, but the treasure (maṣṣartum) of the god Assur might have been kept in the City Hall since it was under the responsibility of the steward (laputtā’um; Dercksen 2004a: 77–9; Matouš 1974b; Veenhof in this volume). In Kaniš, oaths were sworn at the gate of the god Assur, also called the sacred precinct, which might have represented a chapel dedicated to the god as part of the kārum office complex. Priests of Adad, Assur, Ištar, Suen, Šamaš, and Šarramaten are cited for their role in the trade: Mannuba, priest of Assur, was the recipient of silver earned from trade in Anatolia (TC 3, 203), and a priest of Suen possessed one of the few “houses” where it was possible to buy both tin and textiles that would be exported to Anatolia (TC 3, 129). Among the Ashur eponyms are Elali, the chief temple administrator (sangûm), and Iddin‐Aššur, son of a priest (Veenhof 2003, Kryszat 2004).
Women’s letters show their strong concern for religion: they made offerings to temples, paid tribute to gods, and reminded their husbands of their duties to the deities. Women involved in the public life of Ashur often had religious functions; several occupations linked to religion were traditionally held by women, such as dream interpreter (šā’iltum), diviner (bārītum), and consecrated woman (gubabtum, qadištum). Two women wrote to a close relative:
Here (in Ashur), we ask(ed) female dream interpreters, female diviners, and spirits of the dead; the god Assur gives you a serious warning. You love silver and despise your life! Can’t you satisfy Assur here, in the City? Please, as soon as you have heard (the words of) the letter, come, see Assur’s eye and save your life!”
(Michel 2001: no. 348, 2009c, forthcoming: no. 253)
In each Assyrian trading post in Anatolia, there was a shrine or a sacred area devoted to Assur, where the god was represented by his statue with his weapon and jewelry. Other Assyrian deities were worshipped there too. Just as in Assur, Assyrians took oaths there, in front of the divine emblems of Assur. In the town of Uršu, in the area of Gaziantep, robbers once entered the Assur temple and stole the emblem and golden medallion of the god (Larsen: 261–62; Michel 2001: no. 51).
Writing and archives
Data about daily life come predominantly from the numerous letters found in the archives of merchants and exchanged between the different members of the family, and, more specifically, from the women’s correspondences (Michel 2001; 2008d; Michel, forthcoming). Archives of an Assyrian family could include hundreds or more texts dealing, firstly, with the long‐distance trade, and, secondly, with other topics, such as daily life. They were arranged on shelves along the walls of houses or in wooden boxes and clay jars with clay labels to specify their content (Larsen 2008; Michel 2008e; Veenhof 2003a, 2013). Envelopes of letters and contracts, as well as clay labels, bear cylinder seal imprints as a kind of signature and a mark of ownership; sealed legal texts were thus certified (Larsen 1997b; Tessier 1994). The syllabary in use during the Old Assyrian period is relatively simple, with no more than 150 to 200 signs, and with very few logograms and complex syllabic signs. Letters often seem to have been written by their authors – the need of the merchants to move around may explain why they did not use the services of scribes. Scribal apprenticeship could take place in the house of a master who taught a small number of pupils (CCT 4, 6e:4–16), but many learned the basics of writing at home, which allowed them to write their own correspondence and personal notes. Tablets perfectly formed and covered with a regular script can be distinguished from others that are awkwardly shaped and roughly written (Michel 2008a).
It is possible that not only men, but also some women learned how to read and write (Michel 2009d; forthcoming: chapter 4). Among the tablets sent, both by men and women, some display so many mistakes in signs and grammar that they were most likely written by the authors themselves.
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