The Comanche Empire

by Pekka Hämäläinen

  478

  Index

  Camp Holmes, Treaty of, 294, 399n22,

  for Comanche captives, 335; numbers

  430n4

  of, 223, 250–51; raid-and-trade policy

  Canada, 72, 73, 100, 171

  of Comanches and, 192; refusal to be

  Canadian River, 35, 36, 49, 156; American

  ransomed, 191, 258–59; repatriated from

  merchants along, 167; comancheros

  Comanches by United States, 301, 304;

  along, 205; headwaters, 295; winter

  traded at Bent’s Fort, 167; U.S. Indian

  camps, 284–85

  agents and, 328; used as guides, 196,

  Canaguaipe, Chief, 122, 133, 136, 139

  220, 252; women and children, 252

  Canales, Antonio, 233, 236

  Captives and Cousins (Brooks), 11

  capitalism, 145, 167, 188; Comanche raid-

  carbohydrates, 38, 302, 351, 352; captives

  ing wealth and, 223; free labor under,

  in exchange for, 39; as motive for war,

  319, 331, 361; hunting-herding econ-

  31–32

  omy and, 290; U.S. absorption of New

  Carlos III, King, 69, 97–98, 100; contain-

  Mexico and, 213; westward expansion of

  ment of U.S. expansion and, 112–13;

  United States and, 303, 361

  O’Conor appointed by, 390n2; secular

  Capron, Horace, 299, 308

  reforms of, 108

  captives, 5, 13; adoption into Comanche

  Casa de Palo, La, 37

  families, 255, 257; black slaves, 154;

  Catholic Church/Catholicism, 31, 34,

  Comanches in Spanish captivity, 94–95;

  112; Apaches and, 34; Chimayó move-

  indoctrination phase, 253–54; kinship

  ment and, 211; Indians in “Mexican

  networks and, 16; in “Los Comanches,”

  family” and, 180; strong position in

  86; masculine honor of Comanches

  New Mexico, 213. See also Christianity;

  and, 269; men, 252, 253, 254; peace

  missions

  negotiations and, 46–47, 122; public

  Catlett, H. G., 274

  rape of, 45; Texas Republic policy on,

  Catlin, George, 177, 178, 246; Comanche

  216; trade network and, 12. See also

  chiefs painted by, 259, 260; on welcom-

  ransoming; slavery

  ing ceremony for U.S. dragoons, 286–89

  captives, Anglo-American, 154, 155, 216,

  cattle: captured by Comanches, 320; in

  235; adopted into Comanche life, 330;

  Indian Territory, 152; as industry in

  exchanged for Comanche captives, 335;

  Texas, 187, 314, 329–30, 331, 333–34,

  ransom of, 328; women, 253, 255, 319

  342; longhorns, 315, 317–18; slaughtered

  captives, Hispanic/Spanish, 113, 138, 144;

  by Comanches, 74, 81, 85, 209

  reconciled to captivity, 258; women, 47,

  Chacón, Gov. Fernando, 139, 205–6,

  251, 256

  393n38

  captives, Indian, 26, 84, 127; Apache, 27,

  Cháves, Gov. José Antonio, 210

  91, 128, 129, 220, 377n52; comanchero

  Chaves, Xavier, 113, 114, 116, 118

  trade and, 318; social privileges won by,

  Chemin de Guerre des Comanches, 220

  257. See also genízaros (former Indian

  Cherokees, 147, 152, 155, 176, 316; bison

  captives)

  hunting and, 294; black slaves of, 153,

  captives, Mexican, 154, 191, 216, 236, 255,

  154; disunity among, 348; incorporation

  308; on Comanche reservation in Texas,

  into Comanchería, 174–75; as settled

  309; in Comanche war parties, 252–53;

  farmers, 329; Texas Republic and, 214,

  comanchero trade and, 318; exchanged

  215, 217

  Index

  479

  Cheyennes, 110, 162, 164, 172, 176, 211, 331;

  children, captive, 39, 52, 75–76, 223;

  Comanche trade relations with, 71, 73,

  adopted into Comanche families, 255;

  169, 230, 300; conflict with Comanches

  Apache, 40; Mexican, 225, 236

  and allies, 164–65, 168, 170, 179; dis-

  children, Comanche, 52, 131, 216, 240, 267,

  unity among, 348; economic depen-

  381n97; under assault from U.S. forces,

  dence on Comanchería, 170; horses

  310, 311, 334, 341; decline of bison and,

  introduced to, 170–71; incorporation

  309; patriarchy and, 250

  into Comanchería, 326; massacred at

  Chimayó Rebellion, 211, 212

  Sand Creek, 321; nomadism of, 329;

  Chiquito, José, 118–19

  peace with Comanches, 165, 295; on

  Chivington, Col. John, 321

  reservations, 33, 322; Sun Dance and,

  Choctaws, 112, 147, 152, 155, 176, 316; bison

  338; war with United States, 321, 325,

  hunting and, 294; black slaves of, 153,

  333, 342

  154; incorporation into Comanchería,

  Chicanas/Chicanos, 360

  174–75

  Chickasaws, 112, 176, 316, 330; bison hunt-

  Chouteau, Auguste, 156

  ing and, 294; black slaves of, 153, 154;

  Christianity, 26, 33, 35, 40, 58. See also

  incorporation into Comanchería, 174–

  Catholic Church/Catholicism; Quakers,

  75; Indian Removal Act and, 152

  as U.S. Indian agents

  chiefs, Comanche, 113–14, 117, 119, 122,

  ciboleros, 127, 206–7, 295; bison ecology

  130, 348; authority of, 270–74; chief-

  and, 297; Comanche language and, 171;

  tainship as institution, 105; civil chiefs,

  in conflict with Comanches and Kiowas,

  273, 290; Civil War and, 313; decline of

  301–2

  Comanchería and, 299; grand councils

  Civil War, 292, 317, 361; abolition of

  and, 276–77; horse wealth and, 259–63;

  slavery and, 332; decline of Comanches

  Kiowa alliance and, 161; Mexican offi-

  and, 313; effect on Indian nations, 314–

  cials and, 191–92, 196, 210; multitribal

  15; total war pioneered in, 333; violence

  communities of interest and, 326; reser-

  on Great Plains after, 321, 322

  vation, 328; Spanish strategy of “peace

  climate, 22, 361; bison crisis and, 296–97;

  by deceit” and, 133, 135, 136–37; treaties

  horse herds and, 240, 243–44; winters

  with United States and, 314; U.S. Army

  on southern plains, 37

  engagements with Comanches and,

  Coahuila, 5, 95, 101, 117, 212; Apache

  334–35; war chiefs, 273, 290. See also

  raids, 64, 89, 97, 129, 354; Comanche

  specific chiefs by name

  raids, 196, 208, 220, 226; Indian tribes

  chiefs, Kiowa, 161, 332, 335

  removed from eastern United States in,

  Chihuahua, Chief, 184, 189

  306; Lipan Apaches of, 61, 186; silver-

  Chihuahua (Mexican state), 198, 203,

  mining districts, 109, 354; as slaving

  206, 210; Apache raids, 232; bounties for

  frontier, 351; Texas united with, 193, 194,

  Indian scalps in, 228; under Comanche

  200, 358; tribute paid to Comanches,

  dominance, 232; Comanche raids, 221,

  229–
30

  225–26; Mexican-American War and,

  Cocos, 79, 98

  234, 235; tribute paid to Comanches,

  Codallos y Rabál, Gov. Joachín, 41, 42, 44,

  229–30

  377n50

  Chihuahua Trail, 74, 109, 127

  Coffee, Holland, 155–56, 223

  480

  Index

  El Cojo, Chief, 186

  202–6, 223, 350; nomadic and infor-

  colonialism, European/Euro-American,

  mal character of, 3–4; political system,

  17, 345, 352, 365n3; Comanche barrier

  104; raiding zones, 79; as regional core

  to expansion of, 1–2, 357; disease epi-

  of world-system, 5; slave economy in,

  demics and, 353; horses spread in North

  75, 76, 250–53, 347, 350, 359, 424n37;

  America by, 356; revisionist history of,

  smallpox epidemics in, 111, 178–79, 302,

  6–7; rivalries among, 3, 19, 33, 44; settle-

  313; Texas Republic expansion and, 215;

  ment colonies, 4; Southwest outside

  trade fairs, 106, 168; U.S. military in-

  control of, 5. See also imperialism

  vasion of 1870 s, 7, 333–41, 340; westward

  Colorado, U.S. territory of, 303, 304, 321,

  expansion of United States and, 142

  325

  comanchero trade, 168, 171, 205, 211–12;

  Comanche Feats of Horsemanship (Catlin),

  Comanche cultural influence and, 207;

  289

  decline of, 301; destroyed by U.S. Army,

  Comanche language, 83, 113, 118, 175, 349;

  335; geographical range, 176; Mexican

  influence of, 2, 171; Spanish mixed with,

  officials’ criticism of, 210; post–Civil

  206; as trade lingua franca, 171

  War, 325, 326, 330; revival of, 315; Texas

  Comanche Village, women dressing robes

  longhorn cattle and, 315, 317

  and drying meat (Catlin), 288

  Comanches: in American imagination,

  Comanche Warriors, with White Flag, Re-

  343–45; American merchants/traders

  ceiving the Dragoons (Catlin), 287

  and, 144–46, 147–51, 167; Anglo-Texans

  Comanchería (Comanche territory/

  and, 201; annual cycle of, 284–90, 289–

  empire), 11, 71, 142; American traders

  90, 326, 334, 348; bison ecology in crisis

  in, 145–51, 152, 156–60, 188; Apaches

  and, 293–99; as bounty scalp hunters,

  pushed aside by, 61, 64, 66, 75, 90, 101;

  228; Bourbon Reforms of New Spain

  bison herds and ecological crisis, 293–

  and, 109–10; branches/divisions of, 25,

  99; cultural influence of, 170–72; down-

  62, 105–6, 348, 390n74, 426n68; cibo-

  fall, 7, 331–40, 340, 360–61; eastern

  leros in conflict with, 301–2; collapse

  trade gateway, 155–56; Euro-colonial

  of trading network, 299–303; commer-

  regimes and, 181–82; European empires

  cial networks, 2, 167–68; confederacy

  contrasted with, 3–5, 349–53; every-

  of, 106; culture, 5, 31–32, 135, 158–59,

  day life in, 239; food trade with New

  206–7; decline of, 292–93; dominance

  Mexico, 40; geographical extent, 62, 63,

  over other Native nations, 106; eastern

  64, 69, 316; Greater Comanchería, 182,

  Indian nations and, 152–55; economy,

  219, 358; horse wealth of, 75, 167, 170,

  8, 12, 57; entry into recorded history, 20;

  190, 240–41, 346–47; incorporation of

  equestrianism and, 37–38, 40, 66, 67,

  foreign ethnicities into, 172–75, 177–80,

  352, 356; Euro-American views of, 8–9;

  326, 327; invaded by American over-

  European rivalries exploited by, 19, 65–

  land migration, 303–4; maps, 48, 56,

  66, 368n8; expansion, 55, 56, 57, 88–90,

  63, 79, 169, 176; as multiethnic region,

  141–42, 219, 348, 352; factors in success

  175, 326, 349, 360; neutral buffer zones

  of, 345–49; final defeat by U.S. forces

  around, 49, 218, 286, 294; New Mexican

  in Texas Panhandle, 7, 333–41, 340; as

  traders and hunters in, 128, 130; New

  hunter-gatherers ( See gathering; hunt-

  Mexico under dominance of, 101, 182,

  ing); as key to imperial strategy of Bour-

  Index

  481

  bon Spain, 143; legal culture, 277–78;

  and, 211; Hispanic settlers and, 77; raids

  Mexican-American War and, 233–38;

  for, 302; as reservation annuity, 309; as

  migration to southern plains, 18–20, 28,

  source of power, 168. See also maize

  346, 373n22; motives behind actions of,

  Cortés, Hernán, 2

  13, 15; nomadism of, 283–84, 329, 345;

  Cortés, José María, 134, 145

  origins of, 20–24, 162; Pawnees at war

  Cota de Malla (Coat of Mail), Chief, 118,

  with, 42; political system, 2, 102–5, 137,

  392n24

  269–70, 282–83, 348–49; on reserva-

  cotton, 109, 191; in Indian Territory, 153; in

  tions, 322, 323–26, 328, 341, 343; revival

  Texas, 194, 198, 200, 214, 305; westward

  of power after Civil War, 313–15, 316,

  march of plantation system, 156

  317–20; self-reinvention of, 1, 2, 66; slave

  Creeks, 112, 152, 153, 154, 176, 294, 316, 329

  raids of, 27, 28, 154, 223, 332; social face,

  Creoles, 211, 250, 251, 258

  137, 266, 425n52; social organization, 2,

  Croix, Teodoro de, 97, 98–99, 109, 110

  38, 259–66, 275–78, 426n68; Spaniards’

  Cross Timbers, 49, 55, 63, 217

  relations with, 40–42, 46–48, 49, 50–51,

  Crow Indians, 162, 164, 169, 322

  62, 70, 73, 138–40; starvation in wake of

  Cruz, Father Juan de la, 33

  bison slaughter, 337, 341; transatlantic

  Cruzat y Góngora, Gov. Gervasio, 36

  economy and, 17; tribute extraction by,

  Cuerno Verde (Green Horn), Chief,

  2, 9, 12; U.S. takeover of Southwest and,

  103–4, 110, 111, 117, 121; death in battle,

  233, 292, 303–4. See also Jupes (People

  389–90n72; son of, 265

  of Timber); Kotsotekas (Buffalo Eaters);

  Cuetaninaveni, Chief, 122

  Kwahadas (Antelope Eaters); Penatekas

  Custer, Gen. George, 325, 342

  (Honey Eaters); Tenewas (Those Who

  Stay Downstream); Yamparikas (Yap

  Davenport, Samuel, 189

  Eaters)

  Davis, Gov. Edmund, 335–36, 337

  “Comanches, Los” (folk play), 86–88, 344,

  Davis, Jefferson, 308

  360, 389n72

  Delassus, Charles Dehault, 202–3

  Concha, Gov. Fernando de la, 126–28, 133,

  Delawares, 93, 147, 153, 155, 176, 223, 304;

  393n38; Apache bands and, 138–39; on

  bison hunting and, 294; black slaves of,

  apparent dependency of Comanches

  154; incorporation into Comanchería,

  on Spain, 143; on Comanche cultural

  175; Indian Removal Act and, 152; as

  influence, 207; on Comanche political

  scouts for U.S. forces, 311; Texas Repub-

  o
rganization, 283; Comanche wars with

  lic and, 21, 215, 217

  other Native nations and, 139–40, 160;

  Deloria, Vine, Jr., 6

  comanchero trade and, 204–5

  diplomacy, 16, 41, 104, 348; Comanche-

  Confederacy, in Civil War, 313, 333

  Taovaya alliance and, 44; Comanche-

  Cordero (Sargento-Cordero), Chief, 133,

  Ute alliance and, 65; European, 15; ex-

  136, 184, 185, 229

  change of captives and, 251; geopolitical

  Cordero y Bustamante, Gov. Manuel

  reordering of Southwest, 124; between

  Antonio, 188

  Native nations, 172; paraibos and, 270,

  corn, 127, 164, 206, 217, 305; border trade

  274, 282; with reformed Spanish empire,

  and, 204; Comanche commercial

  113; Spanish, 183–84; of Texas Republic,

  networks and, 168; comanchero trade

  214–15; unity of Comanches and, 281;

  482

  Index

  diplomacy (continued)

  markets of New Mexico, 25; pastoral

  Wichita trade barrier with United States

  herding, 10, 241–44; reservations and,

  and, 147–50

  329; slavery and, 14, 250–53, 420; world

  disease epidemics, 23, 30, 293; among

  economy, 5. See also merchants/traders;

  bison, 296; cholera, 179, 198, 300, 302,

  trade

  308; Comanches’ relative protection

  Ecueracapa, Chief, 107, 125, 392n24; as

  from, 346, 347–48; effects on Native

  Comanche delegate to New Mexico,

  trade, 164; European metropolitan

  118–21; Comanche tradition of leader-

  colonialism and, 353; slavery and, 252,

  ship and, 135, 136, 137; death, 133, 135,

  255; spread by trade networks, 178–79;

  160; military alliance with Spaniards

  Wichita victims of, 96. See also smallpox

  and, 139; Spanish plan of peaceful sub-

  Dodge, Col. Henry, 286, 287, 399n22

  jugation and, 132, 133; treaty with Gov-

  Dodge, Col. Richard Irving, 298–99

  ernor Anza, 201, 282

  Dodge, Theodore Ayrault, 245

  Elguézabal, Gov. Juan Bautista, 183

  Dog Soldiers, 321, 325

  elk, 21, 24, 87, 433n22

  dogs, 25, 37

  Elk Creek medicine camp, 337–38

  Domínguez, Fray Francisco Atanasio, 73,

  El Paso, 56, 63, 64, 79, 90, 102, 139, 176,

  77, 84, 86, 88, 89

  220, 222, 230, 232, 234, 310, 316

  droughts, 74, 82, 127, 313, 340; annihila-

  Encanaguané (Red Fox), Chief, 133, 134,

  tion of bison and, 339; bison ecology

  136, 160

  and, 296–97; end of Little Ice Age and,

  Escalante, Silvestre Vélez de, 88, 89

  431n9; horses’ grazing habits and, 242;