Invisible Women

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Invisible Women Page 34

by Caroline Criado Perez


  130 http://fortune.com/2016/07/23/expense-policies-hurt-women/

  131 https://www.gingerbread.org.uk/policy-campaigns/publications-index/statistics/

  132 https://singlemotherguide.com/single-mother-statistics/

  133 Fawcett Society (2017), Does Local Government Work for Women?

  Chapter 4

  1 Goldin, Claudia and Rouse, Cecilia (2000), ‘Orchestrating Impartiality: The Impact of ‘Blind’ Auditions on Female Musicians’, American Economic Review, 90:4, 715–41

  2 http://www.stltoday.com/entertainment/arts-and-theatre/in-orchestras-a-sea-change-in-gender-proportions/article_25cd8c54-5ca4-529f-bb98-8c5b08c64434.html

  3 https://nyphil.org/about-us/meet/musicians-of-the-orchestra

  4 Kunovich, Sheri and Slomczynski, Kazimierz M. (2007), ‘Systems of Distribution and a Sense of Equity: A Multilevel Analysis of Meritocratic Attitudes in Post-industrial Societies’, European Sociological Review, 23:5, 649–63; Castilla., Emilio J. and Benard, Stephen (2010), ‘The Paradox of Meritocracy in Organizations’, Administrative Science Quarterly, 55:4, 543–676

  5 Reynolds, Jeremy and Xian, He (2014), ‘Perceptions of meritocracy in the land of opportunity’, Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 36, 121–37

  6 Castilla and Benard (2010)

  7 http://fortune.com/2014/08/26/performance-review-gender-bias/

  8 Castilla and Benard (2010)

  9 http://stateofstartups.firstround.com/2016/#highlights-diversity-prediction

  10 Uhlmann, Eric Luis and Cohen, Geoffrey L. (2007), ‘“I think it, therefore it’s true”: Effects of self-perceived objectivity on hiring discrimination’, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 104:2, 207–23; Castilla and Benard (2010)

  11 https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/11/20/the-tech-industrys-gender-discrimination-problem

  12 https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/11/20/the-tech-industrys-gender-discrimination-problem

  13 https://hbr.org/2014/10/hacking-techs-diversity-problem

  14 https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/04/why-is-silicon-valley-so-awful-to-women/517788/

  15 http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-women-tech-20150222-story.html#page=1

  16 Reynolds and Xian (2014)

  17 Handley, Ian M., Brown, Elizabeth R., Moss-Racusin, Corinne A. and Smith, Jessi L. (2015), ‘Quality of evidence revealing subtle gender biases in science is in the eye of the beholder’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 112:43, 13201–13206

  18 https://erc.europa.eu/sites/default/files/document/file/Gender_statistics_April_2014.pdf; Wenneras, C. and Wold, A. (1997), ‘Nepotism and sexism in peer-review’, Nature, 387:341; Milkman, Katherine L., Akinola, Modupe and Chugh, Dolly (2015), ‘What Happens Before? A Field Experiment Exploring How Pay and Representation Differentially Shape Bias on the Pathway Into Organizations’, Journal of Applied Psychology, 100:6, 1678–712; Knobloch-Westerwick, Silvia, Glynn, Carroll J. and Huge, Michael (2013), ‘The Matilda Effect in Science Communication’, Science Communication, 35:5, 603–25; Kaatz, Anna, Gutierrez, Belinda and Carnes, Molly (2014), ‘Threats to objectivity in peer review: the case of gender’, Trends Pharmacol Sci., 35:8, 371–3; Women and Science Unit (2011), White Paper on the Position of Women in Science in Spain, UMYC

  19 Women and Science Unit (2011); https://foreignpolicy.com/2016/04/19/how-to-get-tenure-if-youre-a-woman-academia-stephen-walt/

  20 Roberts, Sean G. and Verhoef, Tessa (2016), ‘Double-blind reviewing at EvoLang 11 reveals gender bias’, Journal of Language Evolution, 1:2, 163–67

  21 Budden, Amber E., Tregenza, Tom, Aarssen, Lonnie W., Koricheva, Julia, Leimu, Roosa and Lortie, Christopher J. (2008), ‘Double-blind review favours increased representation of female authors’, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 23:1, 4–6

  22 Knobloch-Westerwick, Glynn and Huge (2013); Maliniak, Daniel, Powers, Ryan and Walter, Barbara F. (2013), ‘The Gender Citation Gap in International Relations’, International Organization; Mitchell, Sara McLaughlin, Lange, Samantha and Brus, Holly (2013), ‘Gendered Citation Patterns in International Relations’, Journal of International Studies Perspectives, 14:4, 485–92

  23 King, Molly M., Bergstrom, Carl T., Correll, Shelley J., Jacquet, Jennifer, and West, Jevin D. (2017), ‘Men Set Their Own Cites High: Gender and Self-citation across Fields and over Time’ Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World, 3: 1–22

  24 Bagilhole, Barbara and Goode, Jackie (2001), ‘The Contradiction of the Myth of Individual Merit, and the Reality of a Patriarchal Support System in Academic Careers: A Feminist Investigation’, European Journal of Women’s Studies, 8:2, 161–80

  25 Krawczyk, Michał (2017), Are all researchers male? Gender misattributions in citations, Scientometrics, 110:3, 1397–1402

  26 https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/12/upshot/even-famous-female-economists-get-no-respect.html

  27 https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/10/upshot/when-teamwork-doesnt-work-for-women.html?mcubz=1

  28 Knobloch-Westerwick, Glynn and Huge (2013)

  29 https://foreignpolicy.com/2016/04/19/how-to-get-tenure-if-yourea-woman-academia-stephen-walt/

  30 https://www.chronicle.com/article/Thanks-for-Listening/233825

  31 http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/female-profs-more-work-1.4473910

  32 Mitchell, Sara McLaughlin and Hesli, Vicki L., ‘Women Don’t Ask? Women Don’t Say No? Bargaining and Service in the Political Science Profession, PS: Political Science & Politics, 46:2, 355–369; Guarino, Cassandra M. and Borden, Victor M. H. (2017), ‘Faculty Service Loads and Gender: Are Women Taking Care of the Academic Family?’, Research in Higher Education, 58:6 672–694

  33 https://hbr.org/2018/03/for-women-and-minorities-to-get-ahead-managers-must-assign-work-fairly; Laperrière, Ève, Messing, Karen and Bourbonnais, Renée (2017), ‘Work activity in food service: The significance of customer relations, tipping practices and gender for preventing musculoskeletal disorders’, Applied Ergonomics, 58, 89–101

  34 Guarino and Borden (2017); Baker, Maureen (2012), Academic Careers and the Gender Gap, Canada; Gibney, Elizabeth (2017), ‘Teaching load could put female scientists at career disadvantage’, Nature, https://www.nature.com/news/teaching-load-could-put-female-scientists-at-career-disadvantage-1.21839; Women and Science Unit (2011), White Paper on the Position of Women in Science in Spain, UMYC

  35 Amy Bug (2010), ‘Swimming against the unseen tide’, Phys. World, 23:08; Boring, Anne, Ottoboni, Kellie and Stark, Philip B. (2016), ‘Student evaluations of teaching (mostly) do not measure teaching effectiveness’ ScienceOpen Research

  36 Boring, Anne, Ottoboni, Kellie and Stark, Philip B. (2016)

  37 http://activehistory.ca/2017/03/shes-hot-female-sessional-instructors-gender-bias-andf-student-evaluations/

  38 MacNell, Lillian, Driscoll, Adam and Hunt, Andrea N. (2015), ‘What’s in a Name: Exposing Gender Bias in Student Ratings of Teaching’, Innovative Higher Education, 40:4, 291–303

  39 https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/womens-blog/2015/feb/13/female-academics-huge-sexist-bias-students

  40 http://activehistory.ca/2017/03/shes-hot-female-sessional-instructors-gender-bias-and-student-evaluations/

  41 Storage, Daniel, Home, Zachary, Cimpian, Andrei and Leslie, Sarah-Jane (2016), ‘The Frequency of “Brilliant” and “Genius” in Teaching Evaluations Predicts the Representation of Women and African Americans across Fields’, PLoS ONE 11:3; Leslie, Sarah-Jane, Cimpian, Andrei, Meyer, Meredith and Freeland, Edward (2015), ‘Expectations of brilliance underlie gender distributions across academic disciplines’, Science, 347:6219, 262–5; Meyer, Meredith, Cimpian, Andrei and Leslie, Sarah-Jane (2015), ‘Women are underrepresented in fields where success is believed to require brilliance’, Frontiers in Psychology, 6:235

  42 Banchefsky, Sarah, Westfall, Jacob, Park, Bernadette and Judd, Charles M. (2016), ‘But You Don’t Look Like A Scientist!: Women Scientists with Feminine Appea
rance are Deemed Less Likely to be Scientists’, Sex Roles, 75:3–4, 95–109

  43 Bian, Lin, Leslie, Sarah-Jane and Cimpian, Andrei (2017), ‘Gender stereotypes about intellectual ability emerge early and influence children’s interests’, Science, 355: 6323, 389–391

  44 https://genderedinnovations.stanford.edu/institutions/bias.html

  45 https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/may/31/women-science-industry-structure-sexist-courses-careers

  46 Grunspan, Daniel Z., Eddy, Sarah L., Brownell, Sara E., Wiggins, Benjamin L., Crowe, Alison J., Goodreau, Steven M. (2016), ‘Males Under-Estimate Academic Performance of Their Female Peers in Undergraduate Biology Classrooms’, PLoS ONE, 11:2

  47 Schmader, Toni, Whitehead, Jessica and Wysocki, Vicki H. (2007), ‘A Linguistic Comparison of Letters of Recommendation for Male and Female Chemistry and Biochemistry Job Applicants’, Sex Roles, 57:7–8, 509–14; Madera, Juan M., Hebl, Michelle R. and Martin, Randi C. (2009), ‘Gender and letters of recommendation for academia: Agentic and communal differences’, Journal of Applied Psychology, 94:6, 1591–9; Dutt, Kuheli, Pfaff, Danielle L., Bernstein, Ariel F., Dillard, Joseph S. and Block, Caryn J. (2016), ‘Gender differences in recommendation letters for postdoctoral fellowships in geoscience’, Nature Geoscience, 9, 805–8

  48 Madera et al. (2009)

  49 https://www.nature.com/news/women-postdocs-less-likely-than-men-toget-a-glowing-reference-1.20715

  50 Trix, Frances and Psenka, Carolyn (2003), ‘Exploring the Color of Glass: Letters of Recommendation for Female and Male Medical Faculty’, Discourse & Society, 14:2, 191–220

  51 Ibid.

  52 Madera at al. (2009)

  53 Nielsen, Mathias Wullum, Andersen, Jens Peter, Schiebinger, Londa and Schneider, Jesper W. (2017), ‘One and a half million medical papers reveal a link between author gender and attention to gender and sex analysis’, Nature Human Behaviour, 1, 791–6

  54 http://gap.hks.harvard.edu/effects-gender-stereotypic-and-counter-stereotypic-textbook-images-science-performance

  55 https://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/project/gendergap/www/papers/anatomy-WSQ99.html

  56 Light, Jennifer S. (1999), ‘When Computers Were Women’, Technology and Culture, 40:3, 455–483

  57 Ensmenger, Nathan L. (2010), The Computer Boys Take Over: Computers, Programmers, and the Politics of Technical Expertise, Cambridge MA

  58 https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2016/09/what-programmings-past-reveals-about-todays-gender-pay-gap/498797/

  59 http://thecomputerboys.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/cosmopolitan-april-1967–1-large.jpg

  60 https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2016/09/what-programmings-past-reveals-about-todays-gender-pay-gap/498797/

  61 Ensmenger, Nathan L. (2010)

  62 Ibid.

  63 https://www.hfobserver.com/exclusive-content/q4-top-recruiting-department-hires-and-an-acquisition/

  64 https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/sep/01/how-algorithms-rule-our-working-lives

  65 https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/11/your-job-their-data-the-most-important-untold-story-about-the-future/281733/

  66 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1471–6402.2008.00454.x; Hannah Riley Bowles, Linda Babcock and Lei Lai (2007), ‘Social incentives for gender differences in the propensity to initiate negotiations: Sometimes it does hurt to ask’, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 103, 84–103.

  67 https://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/23/technology/in-googles-inner-circle-a-falling-number-of-women.html

  68 https://www.physiology.org/doi/10.1152/advan.00085.2017

  69 https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/11/20/the-tech-industrys-gender-discrimination-problem

  70 https://medium.com/@triketora/where-are-the-numbers-cb997a57252

  71 http://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/workplace-gender-quotas-incompetence-efficiency-business-organisations-london-school-economics-lse-a7797061.html

  72 http://web.mit.edu/fnl/volume/184/hopkins.html

  73 http://www.cwf.ch/uploads/press/ABusinessCaseForWomen.pdf

  74 https://madebymany.com/stories/can-a-few-well-chosen-words-improve-inclusivity

  75 Gaucher, D., Friesen, J. and Kay, A. C. (2011), ‘Evidence that gendered wording in job advertisements exists and sustains gender inequality’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101:1, 109–28

  76 https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/12/meritocracy/418074/

  77 Castilla, Emilio J. (2015), ‘Accounting for the Gap: A Firm Study Manipulating Organizational Accountability and Transparency in Pay Decisions’, Organization Science, 26:2, 311–33

  Chapter 5

  1 Kingma, Boris and Marken Lichtenbelt, Wouter van (2015), ‘Energy consumption in buildings and female thermal demand,’ Nature Climate Change, 5, 1054–6

  2 https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/04/science/chilly-at-work-a-decades-old-formula-may-be-to-blame.html?_r=0

  3 http://www.hse.gov.uk/statistics/history/historical-picture.pdf

  4 Ibid.

  5 https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm4822a1.htm

  6 https://www.bls.gov/news.release/cfoi.nr0.htm

  7 https://www.equaltimes.org/the-invisible-risks-facing-working?lang=en#.W0oUw9gzrOT

  8 Ibid

  9 http://www.hazards.org/vulnerableworkers/ituc28april.htm

  10 https://www.equaltimes.org/the-invisible-risks-facing-working?lang=en#.WsyCV9MbPOS

  11 Messing, K. (in press), ‘Fighting invisibility in the workplace: the struggle to protect health and support equality in the workplace’ In Greaves, Lorraine (ed.) A History of Women’s Health in Canada, Second Story Press.

  12 Côté, Julie (2012), ‘A critical review on physical factors and functional characteristics that may explain a sex/gender difference in work-related neck/shoulder disorders’, Ergonomics, 55:2, 173–82

  13 http://www.hse.gov.uk/statistics/causdis/cancer/cancer.pdf?pdf=cancer

  14 Rochon Ford, Anne (2014), “Overexposed, Underinformed”: Nail Salon Workers and Hazards to Their Health / A Review of the Literature National Network on Environments and Women’s Health’, RPSFM (Réseau pancanadien sur la santé des femmes et le milieu)

  15 http://www.hazards.org/vulnerableworkers/ituc28april.htm

  16 ‘Breast Cancer and Occupation: The Need for Action: APHA Policy Statement Number 20146, Issued November 18, 2014’, NEW SOLUTIONS: A Journal of Environmental and Occupational Health Policy; Rochon Ford (2014)

  17 ‘Breast Cancer and Occupation: The Need for Action: APHA Policy Statement Number 20146, Issued November 18, 2014’; Brophy, James T., Keith, Margaret M. et al. (2012), ‘Breast cancer risk in relation to occupations with exposure to carcinogens and endocrine disruptors: a Canadian case-control study’, Environmental Health, 11:87

  18 Rochon Ford (2014)

  19 http://www.passblue.com/2017/07/05/females-exposed-to-nuclear-radiation-are-far-likelier-than-males-to-suffer-harm/

  20 Phillips, Ann M. (2014), ‘Wonderings on Pollution and Women’s Health’, in Scott, Dayna Nadine (ed.), Our Chemical Selves: Gender, Toxics, and Environmental Health, Vancouver

  21 Scott, Dayna Nadine and Lewis, Sarah (2014), ‘Sex and Gender in Canada’s Chemicals Management Plan’, in Scott, Dayna Nadine (ed.), Our Chemical Selves: Gender, Toxics, and Environmental Health, Vancouver

  22 Rochon Ford (2014)

  23 Scott and Lewis (2014)

  24 Rochon Ford (2014)

  25 Scott and Lewis (2014)

  26 Ibid.

  27 Rochon Ford (2014)

  28 Scott and Lewis (2014)

  29 ‘Breast Cancer and Occupation: The Need for Action: APHA Policy Statement Number 20146, Issued November 18, 2014’, NEW SOLUTIONS: A Journal of Environmental and Occupational Health Policy

  30 Rochon Ford (2014)

  31 Brophy et al. (2012)

  32 ‘Breast Cancer and Occupation: The Need for Action: APHA Policy Statement Number 20146, Issued November
18, 2014’, NEW SOLUTIONS: A Journal of Environmental and Occupational Health Policy

  33 https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/may/05/osha-health-women-breast-cancer-chemicals-work-safety

  34 https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/apr/30/fda-cosmetics-health-nih-epa-environmental-working-group

  35 Rochon Ford (2014); Brophy et al. (2012); Scott and Lewis (2014)

  36 Scott and Lewis (2014)

  37 Brophy et al. (2012)

  38 Scott and Lewis (2014)

  39 http://www.hazards.org/compensation/meantest.htm

  40 ‘Designing Tools and Agricultural Equipment for Women’, poster produced by Aaron M. Yoder, Ann M. Adams and Elizabeth A. Brensinger, for 2014 Women in Agriculture Educators National Conference

  41 http://nycosh.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Women-in-Construction-final-11–8-13–2.pdf

  42 Myles, Kimberly and Binseel, Mary S. (2007), ‘The Tactile Modality: A Review of Tactile Sensitivity and Human Tactile Interfaces’, Army Research Laboratory

  43 http://www.afpc.af.mil/About/Air-Force-Demographics/

  44 https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/389575/20141218_WGCC_Findings_Paper_Final.pdf

  45 https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2013/nov/24/female-raf-recruits-compensation-marching-injuries

  46 Laperrière, Ève, Messing, Karen and Bourbonnais, Renée (2017), ‘Work activity in food service: The significance of customer relations, tipping practices and gender for preventing musculoskeletal disorders’, Applied Ergonomics, 58, 89–101

  47 Friedl, Karl E. (2012), ‘Military Quantitative Physiology: Problems and Concepts in Military Operational Medicine’, Office of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army, United States of America; Knapik, Joseph and Reynolds, Katy (2012), ‘Load Carriage in Military Operations A Review of Historical, Physiological, Biomechanical, and Medical Aspects’, Walter Reed Army Medical Center, US Army Medical Department Center & School

  48 https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/389575/20141218_WGCC_Findings_Paper_Final.pdf

  49 Ibid.

  50 ibid.

 

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