recalled more correct
information than
older adults.
Rose, Bull
18 – 31 years
Mental or
2 - minute
30 minutes
No effects of mental or
& Vrij
(N = 36);
physical
videotaped
physical CRI. Age
(2003)
59 – 84 years
CRI
simulated
effects – older adults
(N = 36)
robbery.
more incorrect
Line - up
identifi cations than
identifi cation
younger adults.
Wilcock,
16 – 30 years
CRI by
1 - minute
30 minutes
CRI increased correct
Bull &
(N = 49);
photos
50 - second
rejections in TA
Vrij
64 – 86 years
videotaped
line - up only for
(2007)
(N = 47)
simulated
older adults. Age
robbery.
effects – older adults
Line - up
more incorrect
identifi cation
identifi cations than
younger adults.
Wright &
17 – 31 years
SI, MCI,
2 minutes 40
30 minutes
FCI elicited more
Holliday
(N = 51);
FCI
seconds
accurate details than
(2007a)
60 – 74 -
videotaped
MCI which elicited
years
simulated
more accurate details
(young - old
non - violent
than the SI.
(N = 52);
attempted
Young adults
75 – 95 years
car break - in
were more accurate
(old - old
than young - old
N = 51)
and old - old
adults.
SI = Structured Interview; STDI = Standard Police Interview; FCI = Full Cognitive Interview; MCI = modifi ed
Cognitive Interview (Change perspective mnemonic omitted); MCI RA + CRI = Modifi ed Cognitive Interview
(Change Perspective + Change Order Mnemonics omitted); TA = target absent, TP = target present.
154
Handbook of Psychology of Investigative Interviewing
Table 9.2: Continued
Individuals with intellectual disabilities and the CI
Study
Age - group
Interviews
Type of
Time of
Results
Event
recall
Children
Milne &
7 – 10 years
SI, MCI
9 - minute
24 hours
MCI elicited more
Bull
with mild
(Suggestibility
video
correct details than
(1996)
learning
condition also
recording
SI. No differences
disabilities
included)
of a magic
in incorrect or
(N = 75)
show
confabulated details
across interview type.
Non - signifi cant trend
to resist misleading
questions after a
MCI.
Adults
Brown &
Adults with
STDI, FCI
4 - minute
2 days (in
FCI elicited more
Geiselman
mild
videotape
each case)
correct information
(1990)
learning
depicting a
(32%) compared to
disabilities
an off - licence
the STDI, with no
(21 – 45
robbery (from
corresponding
years;
the point of
increase in incorrect
N = 22)
view of a
information. FCI did
police offi cer).
produce more
1 week later
confabulations than
shown
the STDI.
4 - minute
video
depicting a
bank robbery
(from the
point of view
of a witness)
Milne, Clare Adults
SI, FCI
3 - minute
24 hours
LD group reported
& Bull
(19 – 62
videotape of
signifi cantly fewer
(1999)
years;
road accident
correct details and
N = 38);
reported more
Adults
confabulated details
(19 – 59
than the control
years;
group. For both
N = 47)
groups the FCI
with mild
elicited more correct
learning
details than the SI,
disabilities
although for the LD
(LD)
group there was a
corresponding
increase in
confabulated person
information, accuracy
rates across the two
interviews were
similar.
The Cognitive Interview
155
Table 9.2: Continued
Individuals with intellectual disabilities and the CI
Study
Age-group
Interviews
Type of
Time of recall
Results
Adults
Event
Wright &
75 – 95 years
SI, MCI,
2 - minute
30 minutes
Recall of correct
Holliday
(N = 51);
FCI
40 - second
information for both
(2007b)
75 – 95
videotaped
groups was greater
years
simulated
with the MCI and
indicating
non - violent
FCI than with the SI,
cognitive
attempted car
with no
impairment
break - in
corresponding
(N = 36)
increase in incorrect
or confabulated
information.
SI = Structured Interview; FCI = Full Cognitive Interview; MCI = modifi ed Cognitive Interview (Change per-
spective mnemonic omitted).
References
Action on Elder Abuse
(
2004 ).
Hidden voices: Older people
’ s experience of abuse .
London : Help the Aged .
Akehurst , L. , Milne , R. & K ö hnken , G. ( 2003 ). The effects of children ’ s age and delay
on recall in a cognitive or structured interview
.
Psychology, Crime & Law ,
9 ,
97 – 107 .
Anderson , R. C. & Pichert , J. W. ( 1978 ). Recall of previously unrecallable information
following a shift in perspective . Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior , 17 , 1 – 12 .
Baddeley , A.D. ( 1986 ). Working memory . Oxford : Clarendon Press .
Brainerd , C. J. & Reyna , V. F. ( 2005 ). The science of false memory . New York : Oxford
University Press .
Brimacombe , C. A. , Quinton , N. , Nance , N. & Garrioch , L. ( 1997 ). Is age irrelevant?
Perceptions of young and old adult eyewitnesses . Law and Human Behavior , 21 ,
619 – 634 .
Brown , C. L. & Geiselman , R. E. ( 1990 ). Eyewitness testimony of mentally retarded:
effect of the cognitive interview . Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology , 6 ,
14 – 22 .
Bruck , M. & Ceci , S. J. ( 1999 ). The suggestibility of children ’ s memory . Annual
Review of Psychology , 50 , 419 – 439 .
Campos , L. & Alonso - Quecuty , M.L. ( 1999 ). The cognitive interview: Much more
than simply ‘ try again ’ . Psychology, Crime & Law , 5 , 47 – 59 .
Cardone , D. & Dent , H. ( 1996 ). Memory and interrogative suggestibility: The effects
of modality of information presentation and retrieval conditions upon the sug-
gestibility scores of people with learning disabilities . Legal and Criminological
Psychology , 1 , 165 – 177 .
Ceci , S. J. & Bruck , M. ( 1993 ). Suggestibility of the child witness: An historical review
and synthesis . Psychological Bulletin , 113 , 403 – 439 .
156
Handbook of Psychology of Investigative Interviewing
Ceci , S. J. & Bruck , M. ( 1995 ). Jeopardy in the courtroom: A scientifi c analysis of chil-
dren ’ s testimony . Washington, DC : American Psychological Association .
Ceci , S. J. , Ross , D. F. & Toglia , M. P. ( 1987 ). Suggestibility of children ’ s memory:
Psycho - legal implications . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 116 , 38 –
49 .
Ceci , S. J. , Bruck , M. & Battin , D. B. ( 2000 ). The suggestibility of children ’ s testi-
mony . In D. Bjorklund (Ed.). False memory creation in children and adults: Theory,
research, and implications . Mahwah, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum .
Clare , I. H. & Gudjonsson , G. H. ( 1993 ). Interrogative suggestibility, confabulation
and acquiescence in people with mild learning disabilities (mental handicap):
Implications for reliability during police interrogations . British Journal of Psychology ,
32 , 295 – 301 .
Dando , C. , Wilcock , R. & Milne , R. ( 2009 ). The Cognitive Interview: The effi cacy
of a modifi ed mental reinstatement of context procedure for frontline police
investigators . Applied Cognitive Psychology. 23 , 138 – 147 .
Davis , M. R. , McMahon , M. , & Greenwood , K. M. ( 2005 ). The effi cacy of mnemonic
components of the cognitive interview: Towards a shortened variant for time -
critical investigations . Applied Cognitive Psychology , 19 , 75 – 93 .
Fisher ,
R. P.
& Castano ,
N. (
2008 ).
Cognitive interview
. In
B. Cutler (Ed.),
Encyclopedia of psychology and law . Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage .
Fisher , R. P. & Geiselman , R. E. ( 1992 ). Memory - enhancing techniques for investigative
interviewing: The Cognitive Interview . Springfi eld, IL : Charles C. Thomas .
Fisher , R. P. & Perez , V. ( 2007 ). Memory - enhancing techniques for interviewing
crime suspects . In S. Christianson (Ed.), Offenders ’ memories of violent crimes (pp.
329 – 354 ). Chichester : John Wiley & Sons .
Fisher , R. P. & Schreiber , N. ( 2007 ). Interviewing protocols to improve eyewitness
memory . In M. Toglia , R. Lindsay , D. Ross , & J. Reed (Eds.), The Handbook of
eyewitness psychology. Volume 1 , Memory for events (pp.
53 – 80 ).
Mahwah, NJ
:
Lawrence Erlbaum .
Fisher , R. P. , Geiselman , R. E. & Amador , M. ( 1989 ). Field test of the cognitive
interview: Enhancing the recollection of actual victims and witnesses of crime .
Journal of Applied Psychology , 74 , 722 – 727 .
Fisher , R. P. , Brennan , K. H. & McCauley , M. R. ( 2002 ). The cognitive interview
method to enhance eyewitness recall . In M.L. Eisen , J.A. Quas , & G. S. Goodman
(Eds.), Memory and suggestibility in the forensic interview . Mahwah, NJ : Lawrence
Erlbaum .
Folstein , M. F. , Folstein , S. E. & McHugh , P. R. ( 1975 ). Mini - mental state: A practi-
cal method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician . Journal of
Psychiatric Research , 12 , 189 – 198 .
Geiselman , R. E. & Fisher , R. P. ( 1997 ). Ten years of cognitive interviewing . In
D. G. Payne & F. G. Conrad (Eds.), Intersections in basic and applied memory
research (pp. 291 – 310 ). Mahwah, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum .
Geiselman , R. E. & Padilla , J. ( 1988 ). Interviewing child witnesses with the Cognitive
Interview . Journal of Police Science & Administration , 16 , 236 – 242 .
Geiselman , R. E. , Fisher , R. P. , Firstenberg , I. , Hutton , L. A. , Sullivan , S. , Avetissian ,
I. & Prosk , A. ( 1984 ). Enhancement of eyewitness memory: An empirical evalu-
ation of the cognitive interview . Journal of Police Science and Administration , 12 ,
74 – 80 .
The Cognitive Interview
157
George , R. C. & Clifford , B. R. ( 1996 ). The Cognitive Interview – does it work ? In
S. Lloyd - Bostock & G. Davies (Eds.),
Psychology, law and criminal justice:
International developments in research and practice (pp.
146 – 154 ).
Berlin :
de
Gruyter .
Granhag ,
P. A.
& Spjut ,
E. (
2001 ).
Children ’ s recall of the unfortunate fakir: A
further test of the enhanced cognitive interview . In R. Roesch , R. R. Corrado ,
& R. Dempster (Eds.),
Psychology in the courts (pp.
209 – 222 ).
London :
Routledge .
Hayes , B. K. & Delamothe , K. ( 1997 ). Cognitive interviewing procedures and sug-
gestibility in children ’ s recall . Journal of Applied Psychology , 82 , 562 – 577 .
Hern á ndez - Fernaud , E. & Alonso - Quecuty , M. ( 1997 ). Cognitive Interview and lie
detection: A new magnifying glass for Sherlock Holmes? Applied and Cognitive
Psychology , 11 , 55 – 6 8.
Holliday , R. E. ( 2003a ). The effect of a prior Cognitive Interview on children ’ s accep-
tance of misinformation . Applied Cognitive Psychology , 17 , 443 – 457 .
Holliday , R. E. ( 2003b ). Reducing misinformation effects in children with Cognitive
Interviews: dissociating recollection and familiarity
.
Child Development ,
74 ,
728 – 751 .
Holliday , R. E. & Albon , A. J. ( 2004 ). Minimizing misinformation effects in young
children with cognitive interview mnemonics . Applied Cognitive Psychology , 18 ,
263 – 281 .
Holliday , R. E. & Hayes , B. K. ( 2000 ). Dissociating automatic and intentional pro-
cesses in children ’ s eyewitness memory . Journal of Experimental
Child Psychology ,
75 , 1 – 42 .
Holliday , R. E. & Hayes , B. K. ( 2001 ). Automatic and intentional processes in chil-
dren ’ s eyewitness suggestibility . Cognitive Development , 16 , 617 – 636 .
Holliday , R. E. & Hayes , B. K. ( 2002 ). Automatic and intentional processes in chil-
dren ’ s recognition memory: The reversed misinformation effect . Applied Cognitive
Psychology , 16 , 1 – 16 .
Holliday ,
R. E.
,
Douglas ,
K. & Hayes ,
B. K.
(
1999 ).
Children ’ s eyewitness sug-
gestibility: Memory trace strength revisited
.
Cognitive Development ,
14 ,
443 –
462 .
Holliday ,
R. E.
,
Reyna ,
V. F.
& Hayes ,
B. K.
(
2002 ).
Memory processes under-
lying misinformation effects in child witnesses
.
Developmental Review ,
22 ,
37 – 77 .
Home Offi ce and Department of Health ( 1992 ). Memorandum of good practice on
video - recorded interviews with child witnesses for criminal proceedings .
London :
HMSO .
Home Offi ce and Department of Health ( 2001 ). Achieving best evidence in criminal
proceedings . London : HMSO .
Home Offi ce and Department of Health ( 2007 ). Achieving best evidence in criminal
proceedings .
London :
HMSO .
http://www.cps.gov.uk/publications/docs/
achieving best_evidence_fi nal.pdf .
Isingrini , M. , Vazou , F. & Leroy , P. ( 1995 ). Dissociation of implicit and explicit
memory tests: Effect of age and divided attention on category exemplar generation
and cued recall . Memory & Cognition , 23 , 462 – 467 .
Kebbell , M. & Hatton , C. ( 1999 ). People with mental retardation as witnesses in
court: A review . Mental Retardation , 37 , 179 – 187 .
158
Handbook of Psychology of Investigative Interviewing
K ö hnken ,
G. (
1993 ). The structured interview: A step
- by - step introduction.
Unpublished manuscript.
K ö hnken , G. , Schimossek , E. , Aschermann , E. , & Hofer , E. ( 1995 ). The cognitive
interview and the assessment of the credibility of adults ’ statements . Journal of
Applied Psychology , 80 , 671 – 684 .
Larsson , A. S. , Granhag , P. A. & Spjut , E. ( 2003 ). Children ’ s recall and the Cognitive
Interview: Do the positive effects hold over time? Applied Cognitive Psychology ,
17 , 203 – 214 .
List , J. A. ( 1986 ). Age and schematic differences in the reliability of eyewitness testi-
mony . Developmental Psychology , 22 , 50 – 57 .
McCauley , M. R. & Fisher , R. P. ( 1995 ). Facilitating children ’ s eyewitness recall with
the revised cognitive interview . Journal of Applied Psychology , 80 , 510 – 516 .
Handbook of Psychology of Investigative Interviewing: Current Developments and Future Directions Page 30
