REFLY THE MISSION Zuber, personal interview by Johnson; Zoe Strassfield, “An Interview with Maria Zuber (Part I),” EAPS (Nov. 14, 2012).
THAT KIND OF INSPIRATION Zuber, personal interview by Johnson.
LIKE PATHFINDER Mars Global Surveyor launched on November 7, 1996, whereas Pathfinder launched a month later, on December 4, 1996. Because Pathfinder wouldn’t need to slow down to enter orbit, it was able to travel on a faster trajectory to Mars. It arrived on July 4, 1997, whereas Mars Global Surveyor didn’t arrive until September 11, 1997. It was a new tack for NASA: “The lingering Challenger disaster and recurring fuel tank problems with the shuttle compounded NASA’s negative public image, giving rise to the widespread perception that taxpayer funding for space exploration was being squandered; meanwhile the space science community was growing impatient for continuous new data, and the civilian space budget was dwindling.” See: Stephanie A. Roy, “The Origin of the Smaller, Faster, Cheaper Approach in NASA’s Solar System Exploration Program,” Journal of Space Policy, 14 (1998), pp. 153–171.
SECOND-IN-COMMAND “Press Kit: Mars Observer,” NASA (Sept. 1992).
A REPORTER CALLED Zuber, personal interview by Johnson.
A TINY LEVER The lever had been part of the damper arm, meant to keep the solar panel from banging shut like a screen door.
NO LARGER THAN A CARABINER “Press Kit: Mars Global Surveyor Arrival,” NASA (Sept. 1997); Kirk Goodall, “An Explanation of How Aerobraking Works,” Mars Global Surveyor, NASA; Diane Ainsworth, “Mars Pathfinder Passes Global Surveyor on Its Way to Mars,” Public Information Office, NASA JPL (March 14, 1997).
RIGHT INTO THE FIVE-CENTIMETER HINGE Michael C. Malin, et al., “An Overview of the 1985–2006 Mars Orbiter Camera Science Investigation,” Mars: The International Journal of Mars Science and Exploration, pp. 1–60; Diane Ainsworth, “Mars Global Surveyor to Aerobrake in Modified Configuration,” Public Information Office, NASA JPL (Apr. 30, 1997).
SHORT OF ITS FULLY OPEN POSITION “Exploring Mars: Mars Global Surveyor Mapped the Red Planet,” SpaceToday (2007).
“AEROBRAKING” Aerobraking had only been tested once. At the end of its mission in 1994, the Magellan spacecraft had dipped into the thick haze of Venus’s atmosphere as part of an engineering demonstration. The spacecraft burned itself up in the hot clouds, but it had slowed down dramatically. Mars Global Surveyor was designed to graze across the top of the much thinner, cooler upper Martian atmosphere. For extra drag, the solar panels had deployable flaps at the tips. Daniel T. Lyons, “Mars Global Surveyor: Aerobraking with a Broken Wing,” JPL Technical Report (July 30, 1997); “Press Kit: Mars Global Surveyor Arrival,” NASA; Kirk Goodall, “An Explanation of How Aerobraking Works,” Mars Global Surveyor, NASA.
FACTOR OF FIVE Ibid.
WIGGLE THE PANEL “Flight Status Report” (Jan. 24, 1997); Lyons, “Mars Global Surveyor: Aerobraking with a Broken Wing.”
THE CHAIR TOLD HER Zuber, personal interview by Johnson.
“MAY HAVE BROKEN OFF” Ibid.
SECRETARY BLANCHED Ibid.
PANEL HADN’T IN FACT SNAPPED “Exploring Mars: Mars Global Surveyor Mapped the Red Planet,” SpaceToday.
CORRECT ALIGNMENT Diane Ainsworth, “Surveyor Resumes Aerobraking, Heads for New Mapping Orbit,” Public Information Office, NASA JPL (Nov. 10, 1997); Mary Hardin, “Mars Global Surveyor Successfully Completes Aerobraking,” Media Relations Office, NASA JPL (Feb. 4, 1999).
GIOVANNI SCHIAPARELLI Lovely depictions of Schiaparelli’s life and work can be found in: William Sheehan, The Planet Mars: A History of Observation and Discovery (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1999); William Sheehan, “Giovanni Schiaparelli: Visions of a Colour Blind Astronomer,” Journal of the British Astronomical Association, 107 (1997), pp. 11–15; Sheehan and O’Meara, Mars: The Lure of the Red Planet; pp. 103-123; K. Maria D. Lane, “Mapping the Mars Canal Mania: Cartographic Projection and the Creation of a Popular Icon,” Imago Mundi, 58:2, (2006), pp. 198–211; and Michele T. Mazzucato, “Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli,” Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, 100, no. 3 (2006), pp. 114–117.
FURNACE OPERATOR Ibid.
THE AGE OF FIFTEEN A. Manara and G. Trinchieri, “Schiaparelli and His Legacy,” Memorie della Societa Astronomica Italiana, 82 (2011), p. 209.
AT NINETEEN A. Ferrari, “Between Two Halley’s Comet Visits,” Memorie della Societa Astronomica Italiana, 82, no. 2 (2011), pp. 232–239; Mazzucato, “Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli,” Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada.
TEACHING ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS Manara and Trinchieri, “Schiaparelli and His Legacy,” Memorie della Societa Astronomica Italiana, pp. 209–218.
HE LACKED TOWELS Agnese Mandrino, et al., “Calze, Camicie, Frack e Bottoni Sullo Sfondo del Trattato di Parigi,” Di Pane e Di Stelle (Aug. 29, 2010); G. V. Schiaparelli, letter dated April 29, 1856, Historical Archive of the Astronomical Observatory of Brera, Box 370.
GYMNASIUM PORTA NUOVA Manara and Trinchieri, “Schiaparelli and His Legacy,” Memorie della Societa Astronomica Italiana, p. 209.
LATIN, FRENCH, GREEK, AND HEBREW Mandrino, et al., “Natale 1855: Poesia,” Di Pane e Di Stelle (April 19, 2010); Schiaparelli, diary dated December 25, 1855, Historical Archive of the Astronomical Observatory of Brera.
“WHAT IS WORSE” Mandrino, et al., “Freddo e Fame Non Lasciano Studiare,” Di Pane e Di Stelle (April 26, 2010); Schiaparelli, letter dated December 29, 1855, Historical Archive of the Astronomical Observatory of Brera.
“BARBARIAN COUNTRY” Mandrino, et al., “Prima Della Partenza: Tranquillizzare i Genitori,” Di Pane e Di Stelle (June 28, 2010); Schiaparelli, letter dated December 18, 1857, Historical Archive of the Astronomical Observatory of Brera.
PHILOSOPHY, GEOGRAPHY, METEOROLOGY Mazzucato, “Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli,” Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada; Manara and Trinchieri, “Schiaparelli and His Legacy,” Memorie della Societa Astronomica Italiana; Ferrari, “Between Two Halley’s Comet Visits,” Memorie della Societa Astronomica Italiana.
DEVOURED THE CANON P. Tucci, “The Diary of Schiaparelli in Berlin (October 26, 1857–May 10, 1859): A Guide for His Future Scientific Activity,” Memorie della Societa Astronomica Italiana, 82, no. 2 (2011), pp. 240–247.
LEARNING ARABIC One of his younger brothers became a famous professor of Arabic, and that younger brother had a daughter, Else, who became a world-renowned fashion designer.
HE CALLED IT HESPERIA Mazzucato, “Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli,” Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, p. 117.
HE CLEAVED THE GLOBE Jürgen Blunck, Mars and Its Satellites: A Detailed Commentary on the Nomenclature (Smithtown, N.Y.: Exposition Press, 1982), p. 15; William Sheehan, The Planet Mars: A History of Observation and Discovery (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1999), p. 73.
ARGYRE The legendary silver island at the mouth of Ganges, today’s Arakan, Burma.
COLUMNS OF HERCULES Or Herculis Columnae, the two promontories that flank the eastern entrance of the Strait of Gibraltar.
CHRYSE Or the Land of Gold, described as in the region of Thailand/Malacca by Ptolemy.
“BLACK MELANCHOLY” Mandrino, et al., “Problemi di Ieri, Problemi di Oggi,” Di Pane e Di Stelle (July 26, 2010); G. V. Schiaparelli, letter dated 1910, Historical Archive of the Astronomical Observatory of Brera; Schiaparelli had felt loss profoundly, especially the loss of his brother Eugenio, who died from wounds in the Battle of Solferino. He once wrote about how he wished that nations would talk less about Armstrong and Krupp, the makers of guns, and more about Merz, Cooke, and Clark, the makers of telescopes.
UPSIDE DOWN “Mars Is Earth, Upside Down,” ToponymyMars (June 2, 2013).
“A CURIOUS AND DISORDERED ARRANGEMENT” Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli, Astronomical and Physical Observa
tions of the Axis of Rotation and the Topography of the Planet Mars: First Memoir, 1877–1878, trans. William Sheehan (Springfield, Ill.: Association of Lunar and Planetary Observers, 1996), pp. 1, 3.
NAMES THAT WOULD FILTER DOWN Schiaparelli’s “de-Anglicized nomenclature” provoked deep-seated territorialism among many British astronomers. See the fascinating discussion in: K. Maria D. Lane, “Geographers of Mars: Cartographic Inscription and Exploration Narrative in Late Victorian Representations of the Red Planet,” Isis, vol. 96, no. 4 (December 2005), pp. 477–506, p. 488 in particular.
AS AN ASTRONAUT Zuber, personal interview by Johnson.
INSTRUMENTS TO SAFELY DEPLOY The instruments needed to be above the atmosphere, protected from the heat of aerobraking, to safely deploy. “Scientists Get Images of Mars Pole, Clouds,” MIT News (Dec. 9, 1998); Maria T. Zuber, et al., “Observations of the north polar region of Mars from the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter,” Science 282, no. 5396 (1998), pp. 2,053–2,060. David Spencer and R.H. Tolson, “Aerobraking Cost/Risk Decisions.” J. Spacecraft and Rockets. (2007), 44; Greg Mehall, “Mars Global Surveyor and TES Update,” TES News 7, no. 1 (Jan. 1998).
HER POLAR ARTICLE Maria T. Zuber, et al., “Observations of the North Polar Region of Mars from the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter,” Science.
A LOW-COST AFFAIR Tony Spear, “NASA FBC Task Final Report,” NASA (March 13, 2001).
RESULT OF A MIX-UP Arden Albee, Steven Battel, Richard Brace, Garry Burdick, John Casani, Jeffrey Lavell, Charles Leising, Duncan MacPherson, Peter Burr, and Duane Dipprey, “Report on the Loss of the Mars Polar Lander and Deep Space 2 Missions,” NASA Technical Report (2000).
ULTIMI SCOPULI Eric J. Kolb and Kenneth L. Tanaka, “Accumulation and Erosion of South Polar Layered Deposits in the Promethei Lingula Region, Planum Australe, Mars,” Mars: The International Journal of Mars Science and Exploration, 2 (2006), pp. 1–9.
TOP SPEED The lower gravity helped, but it was still the equivalent of a fall from a four-story building. Kenneth Chang, “Remains of Failed Mars Lander May Have Been Found,” The New York Times (May 10, 2005).
SANDS OF SAMARA “Possible Crash Site of Mars 6 Orbiter/Lander in Samara Vallis,” Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (image acquired May 26, 2007).
PENNANT WITH THE STATE EMBLEM The 1971 Soviet Mars 2 mission likely crashed near 45°S, 313°W; see: “Mars 3 Lander,” NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive, NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1971-049F.
BRITISH ASTROBIOLOGY MISSION The Beagle 2 mission, named after Charles Darwin’s famous ship, rode to Mars aboard the European Space Agency’s Mars Express mission in 2003. Beagle 2 was designed to search for signs of past life on the Martian surface and in the shallow subsurface, analyzing samples in its miniature onboard laboratory. Its other objectives were characterizing the landing site geology, mineralogy, geochemistry and oxidation state, the physical properties of the atmosphere and surface layers, and collecting data on Martian meteorology and climatology.
ONE STILL FOLDED The mission came tantalizingly close to succeeding. Orbital imaging of the site in 2015 using the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) appears to show that three of the four solar panels deployed successfully. The fourth panel likely failed or only deployed partially, thereby obscuring the transmitter’s antenna. See: J. C. Bridges, et al. “Identification of the Beagle 2 Lander on Mars,” Royal Society Open Science, 4, no. 10 (2017), pp. 170, 785.
CD-ROM, LIKELY SHATTERED Ben Huh, “Kids’ Names Going to Mars,” South Florida Sun-Sentinel (Deerfield Beach, Fla., March 3, 1998); Ashwin R. Vasavada, et al., “Surface Properties of Mars’ Polar Layered Deposits and Polar Landing Sites,” Journal of Geophysical Research, 105, no. E3 (2000), pp. 6,961–6,969.
“HOW BAD COULD THIS” Zuber, personal interview by Johnson.
MORE DATA THAN ANY PREVIOUS MARS MISSION “Press Kit: Phoenix Landing: Mission to the Martian Polar North,” NASA (May 2008).
THE TOPOGRAPHICAL MEASUREMENTS THEY RETURNED “Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) Elevation Map,” Goddard Space Flight Center (May 28, 1999).
PLATE TECTONICS As mentioned in an earlier endnote, while many researchers agree Mars is likely a “one-plate planet,” it has been suggested that Valles Marineris could be a plate boundary. See: D. Breuer and T. Spohn, “Early Plate Tectonics Versus Single-Plate Tectonics on Mars: Evidence from Magnetic Field History and Crust Evolution,” Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets, 108, no. E7 (2003); An Yin, “Structural Analysis of the Valles Marineris Fault Zone: Possible Evidence for Large-Scale Strike-Slip Faulting on Mars,” Lithosphere, 4, no. 4 (2012), pp. 286–330.
THREE KILOMETER BLANKET OF ROCK “Mars Basher,” Scientific American (May 31, 1999).
WHACKED MARS HARD J. H. Roberts, R. J. Mills, and M. Manga, “Giant Impacts on Early Mars and the Cessation of the Martian Dynamo,” Journal of Geophysical Research Planets, 114, no. E4 (2009).
SMOOTHEST SURFACE Chandler, “In Profile: Maria Zuber,” MIT News; David E. Smith, Maria T. Zuber, Sean C. Solomon, Roger J. Phillips, James W. Head, James B. Garvin, W. Bruce Banerdt, et al., “The Global Topography of Mars and Implications for Surface Evolution,” Science, 284, no. 5419 (1999), pp. 1,495–1,503; Mikhail A. Kreslavsky and James W. Head III, “Kilometer-Scale Roughness of Mars: Results from MOLA Data Analysis,” Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets, 105, no. E11 (2000), pp. 26,695–26,711.
TILT SLIGHTLY Smith, et al., “The Global Topography of Mars and Implications for Surface Evolution,” Science.
POSSIBLE SHORELINE J. Taylor Perron, et al., “Evidence for an Ancient Martian Ocean in the Topography of Deformed Shorelines,” Nature, 447 (2007), pp. 840–843.
THE GROUND REBOUNDING Javier Ruiz, “On Ancient Shorelines and Heat Flows on Mars,” Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, 36 (2005).
NOT JUST TOPOGRAPHY For instance, swaths of the planet’s crust lit up with magnetic signals, just like an invisible-ink coloring book, indicating Mars had once been shielded from the solar wind, the deleterious gusts of particles from the sun that have been sputtering away its atmosphere ever since. There were minerals associated with chemical weathering, a clear signpost that the surface had interacted with water. There were also localized areas where Maria’s altimeter suggested water could have pooled and formed ponds and evidence of gullies on slopes that didn’t get much sunlight—in craters and valley walls, in alcoves spreading into fan-shaped aprons of debris. The spacecraft also sensed the presence of minuscule amounts of water in the atmosphere, and it peered out beyond the visible spectrum, out into the infrared, where minerals absorb particular wavelengths of light. Yet there was no evidence for carbonates, the chalky minerals that form in the presence of water and carbon dioxide. Our planet’s early carbon dioxide atmosphere—a whooping seventy bars of carbon dioxide, seventy times our atmospheric pressure—was pulled in the ocean, blanketing the floors of our ancient seas with limestone. Without a thicker carbon dioxide atmosphere, Mars couldn’t have had stable surface water. That water should have led to carbonates, yet there were no carbonates to be found, and no one knew why.
WEATHER REPORTS Zuber, personal interview by Johnson; “Mars Orbiter Camera Mars Weather Update, for the week September 3–9, 2002,” Malin Space Science Systems.
MARIA EVEN HEARD Zuber, personal interview by Johnson.
FIRST PHOTOGRAPH “PIA04531: Earth and Moon as Viewed from Mars,” Mars Global Surveyor (May 22, 2003).
SEEING OUR PLANET Victoria Jaggard, “What Yuri Gagarin Saw on First Space Flight.” National Geographic, April 13, 2011; “I see Earth! It is so beautiful!” European Space Agency (March 29, 2011).
“A MOTE OF DUST” Carl Sagan, Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the Human Future in Space (New York: Ballantine Books, 1997), p. 6.
QUOTE FROM TOLKIEN J. R. R. Tolkien, The Fellowsh
ip of the Ring (New York: Del Rey, 1986), p. 193.
Chapter 8: The Acid Flats
JOHN GROTZINGER John is currently the Fletcher Jones Professor of Geology at Caltech and is the principal investigator of NASA’s Mars Science Laboratory mission.
STARED LIKE A WOLF This is based on a remark by Paul Hoffman, an emeritus Harvard professor, who once described Grotzinger as having “eyes a bit like a wolf, when he looks at a rock.” Quoted in Amina Khan, “Seeing Mars Through the Eyes of a Geologist,” www.phys.org (Aug. 4, 2012).
WOULD BE BEAMED “The Rover’s Antennas,” NASA Mars; “Communications with Earth,” NASA Mars.
IN NEARBY MONTROSE Daniel Siegal, “Montrose Jeweler Makes Watches on Mars Time,” Los Angeles Times (Oct. 30, 2013).
ON THE FOURTH Steve Squyres, Roving Mars: Spirit, Opportunity, and the Exploration of the Red Planet (New York: Hyperion, 2005), p. 230.
WARM AND WET PAST “Mars Exploration Rovers Overview,” Mars Exploration Rovers, NASA.
SIZE OF CONNECTICUT Guy Webster, “Go to That Crater and Turn Right: Spirit Gets a Travel Itinerary,” NASA (January 13, 2004).
“BASALT PRISON” This nickname became a popular way for the team to describe the landing site at Gusev.
ONE OF THE SAFEST PLACES TO LAND Steven W. Squyres and Andrew H. Knoll, “Sedimentary Rocks at Meridiani Planum: Origin, Diagenesis, and Implications for Life on Mars,” Earth and Planetary Science Letters 240, no. 1 (2005), pp. 1–10.
The Sirens of Mars Page 28
