by Ray Morton
•Second Unit Director—when a film contains a great deal of stunt work or action sequences (car chases, battle scenes, and so on)—complex, highly technical sequences that take a long time to plan and shoot—the production will often set up a second production unit—complete with its own camera crew and production team—to film this material concurrently with the main unit, so that the movie can be finished in a reasonable amount of time. Second units are also used to shoot background footage for films set in exotic locales or inserts or fill-in material for scenes shot by the main unit. The second unit has its own director, who can sometimes be the main unit’s editor, cinematographer, or stunt coordinator, but many times an outside director is brought in. The director selects the second unit director and then designs and prepares the second unit sequences with him. Most second unit scenes are filmed without the main cast and use stunt doubles instead. However, if any shots of the principals are required for a second unit sequence—close-ups of the leading man at the wheel during a car chase, for example—that material is filmed by the director.
Once the director has selected these key members of his creative team, he puts them to work. The team members (often called department heads) will assemble their own individual crews and then generate ideas based on the director’s vision for the director to approve. Sometimes extensive test shooting will be done to determine how well these approved ideas work on film, and ideas may be altered or thrown out entirely based on the results. Once all ideas and concepts have been approved, preparations are made to implement or realize them during production.
Cast the actors
One of the most important things a director does during preproduction is cast the movie—select actors to play roles in the story. Casting is very important because most directors agree that the key factor in obtaining a great performance is to select the right actor to play the part. A professional casting director is usually hired to help the director with this vital task. A casting director is familiar with the available talent pool and is always on the lookout for new and emerging actors, and so is in a position to offer the director informed and viable suggestions for filling the film’s many large and small roles. The casting director also has strong relationships with actors’ representatives (agents and managers) and so can easily facilitate meetings and auditions.
Sometimes the director will want a star to play a certain part. Most big-name actors do not audition, so the director will send the screenplay to the star and—if the star likes the script—meet with him or her to discuss the role. If the discussion goes well, negotiations between the star’s representatives and the production will commence and will hopefully lead to the star taking the part. If not, the search will continue until the role is cast.
Well-known character actors are often approached to play important supporting parts in the same way. Lesser-known and unknown actors are usually required to audition for parts so that directors can get a sense of their range and abilities and so they can see how well (or not) the actors can take direction. Directors will sometimes shoot screen tests of promising candidates to see how they look on film, to further assess their acting abilities, or to see if they have sufficient chemistry with other actors in the film (this is especially important for love stories).
Once the primary cast is assembled, the director will usually gather the actors to read through the script aloud, so that everyone can get a feel for the piece and the chemistry of the ensemble. Most film budgets do not allow for any sort of extensive rehearsal in advance of shooting (since paying actors the extra money required for rehearsals can increase the cost of the film considerably), although some successful directors with clout can and do insist upon them. If no rehearsals are possible, then the director will still spend time with the actors discussing their roles in depth, so that everyone will have a clear idea of what they want the characters to be.
Scout locations
If any part of the movie is going to be shot outside the studio, the director, the cinematographer, and production designer will travel about looking for real-world locations that suit the story and the director’s conception. They will do this in conjunction with the production team to ensure the locations will be both artistically correct and practical—that they will be reasonably accessible to personnel and equipment; that they are relatively close to proper food and lodging for the crew; that they are cost-effective; and so on.
Storyboard and previz
Many directors like to prepare for a shoot by storyboarding—i.e., drawing each shot they envision for a scene on paper like a comic strip. Storyboarding helps the director develop the visual feel and flow of the scene and helps him clearly communicate his ideas to the crew. Some directors will storyboard every scene in the movie. Others will only storyboard big action scenes or special effects sequences—segments of the film that contain a lot of complex technical elements and require a great deal of preplanning to properly execute. This allows everyone involved in making these scenes to know exactly what results are expected and what they need to do to prepare accordingly.
In recent years, storyboards have been sometimes supplemented and frequently supplanted by a process known as “previsualization” or “previz” for short. Previz consists of rudimentary computer-generated shots that provide a much fuller depiction of the action and movement the director wants in a shot than it is possible for the static images in storyboards to convey. Previz has become a foundational element in the planning of most visual effects sequences and an increasingly common one in the planning of stunt and action scenes.
Preshoot
Movies will often use filmed material as part of a scene—TV news reports, commercials, film clips, graphics, and so on. All this material is shot during preproduction so it will be ready to be used on set during production.
Because so many key decisions affecting the film’s style and content are made during preproduction, this period is arguably the most important period in the making of a movie.
Once preproduction is completed, it is time for the director to begin shooting.
7
The Film Director in Principal Photography
Principal photography is the phase of the filmmaking process during which the movie is shot. It is the most intense and expensive part of moviemaking, and the director is at the white-hot center of it all.
Preparing the day’s work
The director prepares for each day of principal photography by determining the business (the actions and behavior) the actors will perform in the scene or scenes scheduled to be filmed, and by working out the blocking (where the actors will be positioned in the set and how they will move about during the scene).
One of the most important parts of a director’s preparation is to plan his coverage—to devise the shots he will need to properly record (or “cover”) the scene or scenes. The standard approach to covering a scene is to first film a master shot—a wide shot in which the entire set is visible and in which the actors perform the scene from beginning to end. The master provides a base for the scene. The director then moves in tighter for medium shots, over-the-shoulder shots, close-ups, and inserts—shots that will emphasize and detail various parts of the action. Not every director films a scene in exactly this way—some cover the entire scene in a single shot; others eschew master shots; and so on. But however a director approaches it, the goal is to collect enough material to assemble a scene that is both narratively and visually coherent and interesting.
Some directors do their preparation days, weeks, or even months in advance of shooting—often via the storyboarding or previz process. As mentioned in the previous chapter, advance preparation is mandatory for big action and special effects sequences. However, there are directors who like to extensively preplan the movie’s “smaller” scenes—those focused primarily on the actors’ performances—as well. (The legendary Alfred Hitchcock was famous for working out every detail
of every shot of every scene of his pictures long before filming began. His preparation was so complete that he often said he felt as if he had already made the movie and that the actual filming was something of an afterthought.)
When this type of director arrives on the set, he instructs the crew where to place the camera, tells the actors where to stand and what to do, and then gets on with it—requiring everyone to accommodate themselves to his preconceived business, blocking, and camera angles. The advantage to this approach is that it can get the workday off to a fast start and enable it to proceed with extreme efficiency. The disadvantage is that the results can sometimes feel a bit stiff and lacking in spontaneity.
Other directors prefer to wait until the day a performance-based scene is being filmed to prepare it. A helmer who takes this approach will begin by having the actors run through the scene on the set. The director will give the performers a free hand so he can see where their instincts will take them—allowing them to discover and invent their own bits of business and find their own rudimentary blocking. The director will then work with the actors to refine and shape what they have done into a fully realized scene. Only after this is done will he devise his coverage—accommodating the shots to the scene, rather than the scene to the shots. (Sidney Lumet, the famed director of Serpico and Dog Day Afternoon, favored this method.) The disadvantage to this approach is that it can take longer for the workday to get started, but the advantage is that the scenes often feel much more natural and alive.
No matter how he goes about preparing a scene, a director must always address a number of important issues:
•He must be sure he is clearly and effectively presenting all the scene’s intended story and character points.
•He must be sure he is laying out the geography of the scene—devising shots that show the audience where all the important elements of the set (doors, windows, furniture, and so on) are located and where the characters are positioned when the scene begins—so that viewers will have a clear sense of the physical space the action is taking place in and be able to comprehend where characters are coming from and where they are going.
•He must be sure he is milking the scene for all it is worth—wringing out of it all of the comedy, drama, romance, or thrills he possibly can.
A director’s preparation must be thorough and complete, but it must never become a straitjacket. Every day that a movie is in production, the director is at the head of a vast army of artists, craftspeople, and technicians with a very expensive clock ticking constantly. Obviously, he must have a very clearly defined plan for where he wants to lead them and how he wants them to get there. On the other hand, he must also remain flexible—open and available to the in-the-moment inspiration and happy accidents that can make a movie truly come alive.
The shot list
However a director prepares, he will eventually come up with a list of shots that the unit will need to film to complete the day’s scheduled work. The director will then confer with the cinematographer, the unit production manager, and the first assistant director to determine the best order in which to film those shots. This order is usually set with an eye on efficiency and practicality. For example, all shots that face the same way may be filmed together no matter what order they appear in the scene, so they can all use the same lighting setup (since lighting must be adjusted—which can be a time-consuming process—whenever the camera is moved more than fifteen degrees). Or close-ups of the actors may be filmed first thing in the morning, so the performers will look fresh when they are photographed (rather than tired, as they might after a long day’s work), and so on.
Setting up the first shot
Once the shot order has been determined, the crew will set up the first shot of the day—the cinematographer will work with his team to light the set and position the camera, while the set dressers and the prop, special effects, and costume and makeup crews will attend to their duties. If there are any extras (actors who appear in the background of shots but do not have any lines), the first assistant director will give them their business and blocking.
Working with the actors
While the first shot is being set up, the director will usually spend some time rehearsing the scene with the cast.
Working with actors is one of the most important parts of a film director’s job. It’s a task that requires great flexibility—every actor has his or her own unique approach to the craft, so for a director to get the best out of his cast, he needs to work with each actor according to his or her own technique rather than applying a one-size-fits-all method.
A director must also be a bit of a psychologist. Actors are notoriously sensitive creatures (they have to be—their job requires them to keep their feelings close to the surface and ready to be summoned at a moment’s notice). A good director will learn how to tend to his performers’ emotional states so that they can make their feelings work for them, rather than get in the way.
Some directors take a dictatorial approach with thespians—telling them exactly what to do and how to do it, even to the point of giving them line readings (instructing them how to perform each and every word of dialogue). Most actors do not respond well to this tactic—they feel it straitjackets them, marginalizes their talents and contributions, and makes it difficult for them to give a fully living and breathing performance. Actors usually prefer directors to give them the freedom to act out the scene the way they think is best and then work with them to adjust and temper that performance until they arrive at a satisfying result.
Some actors like to improvise. It is up to the director to decide if this is appropriate for a scene or a film or if the actors should stick to the script.
Actors want a director to protect them—to create a safe environment for them to experiment with different (and sometimes quite extreme) approaches to a scene or performance on the way to a final product without being made to feel foolish. Actors also want a director to protect them by not allowing anything into the final cut of a film that will embarrass them. If the performers feel they can trust their director to look out for them, then they will be more willing and able to give their all, which can only make the movie better.
Filming the first shot
After the crew has finished setting up the first shot, the director will review the various components of the piece and make any changes or adjustments he feels are required. Sometimes he will have the actors and the camera and effects crews rehearse the action a few times to get the feel and the timing just right.
Once the director is satisfied that everything is correct, filming begins. The first assistant director calls for quiet on the set; the actors take their starting positions; the camera and sound recorder are turned on; and when they are both rolling at the proper speed, the director calls for “Action!” and the actors begin performing the scene.
The director watches the scene unfold, focusing intently on the performances and everything else playing out in front of the camera. In earlier times, the director would watch from a position very near the camera, so that he could get an approximate sense of how the scene would appear in the shot. These days, however, most movie cameras have a video assist—a tap that transmits the exact image the camera is photographing to a television monitor. The monitor is usually set up in an encampment away from the camera called the “video village,” so most directors will watch from there instead.
When the scene is over, the director will call “Cut!” and filming will stop. (Only the director can call cut—it is a grave offense for anyone else on the set to do so, unless the director has given them permission.)
Each filmed version of a shot is called a “take.” If the director is satisfied with the first take, then the work on the first shot is finished. If the director is not satisfied, he will call for another take and continue to do so—making adjustments in performances and other elements—until he gets the results he wants.
The number of takes is often an issue of contention—directors often want to be able to do as many as necessary to get a shot right. However, since every minute spent in production is enormously expensive, the production team will always prefer that the director do as few takes as possible.
Once work on the first shot is completed, the director will select the takes he likes and order them to be printed so that they can be reviewed and then turned over to the editor. (This is only if the movie is being shot on film. If it is being shot digitally, no printing is required. However, the director will still indicate which takes he prefers.)
The unit then moves on and begins setting up the next shot on the list. The first assistant director supervises this process. Aided by a team of second and third assistant directors and production assistants, he moves the company along as efficiently and briskly as possible.
Between setups
It can take anywhere from a few minutes to a several hours to set up a shot, depending on how complex it is. The director uses this time to attend to other things:
•He will continue to work with the actors.
•He will prep for shots to be done later that day.
•He will review and approve plans, concepts, and work being done by the creative and production teams in preparation for scenes that will be shot later in the schedule.
•He may continue to work on the screenplay. Moviemaking is a fluid process—things are always changing, and the director may want the script altered to incorporate new ideas; to add, revise, or delete lines of dialogue, bits of business, and entire scenes and sequences; to beef up roles (if an actor proves to be especially terrific and the director wants to give him more to do) or pare them down (if an actor proves to be especially not terrific and the director wants to give him less to do); or to accommodate unexpected things that happen during filming. (The ending of Jaws was famously reworked because director Steven Spielberg wanted to include a spectacular but unplanned shot of a shark destroying a diving cage that was filmed by the second unit. In the original script, Richard Dreyfuss’s character was supposed to be in the cage when the shark attacked and would get killed, but in the actual shot, the cage was empty. So the script was rewritten and, as a result, Dreyfuss survived.)
