9 M. Biétry was a textile manufacturer who became famous for mass-producing Cashmere shawls; his wares were exhibited at the great exhibitions of the mid-19th century, including the Exposition Universelle to which Parville provided one of the guide-books.
10 Olein (Oléine in French), a derivative of fats that was one of the first compounds isolated and exploited by the burgeoning science and technology of organic chemistry, was indeed marketed at one time as an aid in angling, allegedly attracting fish by means of its odorant qualities. It has many other uses, which have long overtaken that one.
11 Although Mr. Shafford is not a character in the story, he appears to be fictitious, and the reference to him is therefore a trifle gnomic.
12 Coprolites are pieces of fossilized dung; they are much prized by palaeontologists for the information they can yield regarding the diets of prehistoric animals. The term coprology, given to this scientific endeavour, is also sometimes used sarcastically, to describe the study of dirty books; that is presumably why Parville mentions the mysterious grey man’s collaboration with a famous poet. We never do discover his name, and he never gets to play the role of Devil’s Advocate that is seemingly reserved for him here.
13 Tardigrades, in this meaning, are small arachnid mites familiarly known as “water-bears”. They were among the most commonly-cited “infusoria,” a general term then given to creatures only visible by means of early 19th century microscopes.
14 Old books, in the mid-19th century, were quite likely to be unbound; publishers had only recently begun binding them as a matter of course.
15 The famous French dramatist was rather cynical about physicians, most notably in Le médécin malgré lui (1666), in which the woodcutter Signarelle impersonates a physician and achieves a not-very-remarkable “cure” by introducing a female patient’s secret lover to her home in the guise of his apothecary.
16 The study of changes in the constitution of rocks resulting from pressure, heat, chemical action, etc.
17 Parville inserts three footnotes into this list, defining aphanite and nickelocher as minerals containing arsenic, the former in combination with copper and the latter with nickel, triphylite as a mineral composed of phosphorus in combination with iron and manganese, and panabase and bournonite as combinations of sulphur with antimony and copper. More recent terminology uses aphanite as a general description of any kind of rock so closely-textured that its grains are invisible to the naked eye and has replaced “nickelocher” with the name annabergite. Triphylite was subsequently identified as a composite of lithium and iron phosphates with traces of manganese. “Panabase” also became obsolete in the meaning Parville cites, being replaced by tetrahedrite; as well as copper and antimony sulfides, it usually contains traces of other metals. Bournonite is a composite of antimony, lead and copper sulfides. The modern descriptions I have consulted do not report any traces of cesium in any of these minerals.
18 Jean-Louis-Armand de Quatrefages de Bréau (1810-1892), a noted naturalist and physical anthropologist.
19 The cosmogonic theory devised by Pierre-Simon, Marquis de Laplace (1749-1827), elaborating theses initially put forward by René Descartes (1596-1650), dominated 19th century thought regarding the origin of our solar system, and solar systems in general; the theory advanced by Parville’s Mr. Greenwight in the next chapter is a simplified and slightly modified version of it
20 This thesis is, in essence, a re-envisioning in the context of contemporary science of one of the central propositions of occult science: “as above, so below;” dozens of works had been written, in the wake of the revival of interest in occult science in the Renaissance, regarding presumed harmonic relationships between the (human or Earthly) microcosm and the stellar macrocosm. Their ambition and complexity were refueled rather than being made redundant by Copernican theory, and such mystical systems as Emmanuel Swedenborg’s still made much of metaphorical resonances of that sort in the early 19th century. The substitution of an atomic/molecular microcosm for the human one was a natural consequence of the development of microscopy and the renewal of atomic theory by chemists. The analogy became even more appealing at the beginning of the 20th century, when a clearer discrimination had been made between molecules and atoms and a model of the atom was proposed that represented it as a positively-charged nucleus orbited by “planetary” electrons.
21 Micromégas (1752) is a satirical conte philosophique in which Earth is visited by a giant inhabitant of the Sirius system, who picks up a smaller Saturnian—still gigantic by human standards—en route to Earth.
22 A metric league is four kilometres, so this figure translates as a radius of 6,000 km. Modern measurements of the equatorial radius (the Earth is not quite spherical) give a figure of 6,378 km.
23 This runs directly contrary to modern theory, which holds that planetary atmospheres gradually dissipate into space rather than being absorbed by solid surfaces; the difference has important consequences for the theory of planetary evolution that Parville subsequently puts forward, and hence for the theories of geological and biological evolution associated with it. Mr. Newbold’s insistence on the central relevance of mineralogy to cosmology is understandable given Parville’s education in the Ecole des Mines; his is, essentially, a geologist’s view of the nature of the universe—but it is the view of a mineralogist rather than that of an evolutionary geologist of Charles Lyell’s stripe.
24 Parville: “The theories expressed by these American gentlemen have the same initial effect as the fantastic elucubrations that emerge from diseased brains. In this regard, however, we are obliged to say that, in spite of their strangeness, they are completely in accord with the present state of positive science. Mathematical physics confirms these hypothetical facts, and Cauchy, our great geometer, says in his lectures at the College de France:
“Monsieur Ampère has deduced from observations the number of atoms that ought to enter into the composition of each integral molecule, with reference to the five forms of molecules admitted by mineralogists: tetrahedron, octahedron, primary parallelepiped, hexahedron and rhomboidal dodecahedron. He has found that the molecules comprising these five forms must be respectively composed of 4, 6, 8, 12 and 14 atoms. If, therefore, we were able to perceive the molecules of different bodies subject to our experience, they would present themselves to our eyes as species of constellations, and, in passing from the infinitely large to the infinitely small, we would find in the smallest particles of matter, as in the immensity of the skies, centers of action distributed relative to one another.”
“Is that not what Messrs. Sieman and Newbold said, in their own terms?
“A well-known French scientist, M. A. Gaudin, a mathematician in the Bureau des Longitudes, has measured the distances separating these little stars, and their number, by a very ingenious method. It emerges from his researches that the distance between the largest organic molecules is a millionth of a millimetre, and he distance between the atoms is a ten-millionth of a millimetre. If one wanted to count the atoms enclosed in a little cube of matter two millimetres in each dimension, about the size of the head of a pin, and supposing that one could count a million per second, it would still take about 250,000 years.”
The French mathematician Augustin-Louis Cauchy (1789-1857) had been dead for some years by the time this note was written, so the lectures in question and the cited observations of André-Marie Ampère (1775-1836) were considerably out of date by 1865. Ampère, early in his career, had attempted to produce a model to explain the six basic forms of crystals identified by René Just Haüy (1745-1822)—the list Parville gives omits a second variety of dodecahedron—but he was working with inadequate theoretical instruments and his model was eventually discarded and forgotten. The mathematician, chemist and inventor Marc-Antoine Gaudin (1804-1880), who nowadays most famous as a pioneer of photography, subsequently published a book developing the ideas mentioned here, L’architecture du monde des atomes (Gauthier-Villars, 1873).
25 P
arville: “The same law has been recently established for the mountains of the Moon.”
26 Mr. Nuevopolis appears to be fictitious, and his “law” is certainly imaginary.
27 Parville: “There would be nothing inadmissible, however, in supposing equally well that matter has been in motion eternally, that creation has neither an end nor a beginning. Why be astonished at that idea—is it not familiar to us? Is it that finite beings like ourselves can only conceive of the finite? The infinite escapes us by virtue of our very constitution.” The statement in the text is strongly reminiscent of the opening passage of Lucretius’ classic summary of Epicurean philosophy, De rerum natura, which was a very popular text in 19th century France. The poem argues that everything existent is “matter in motion;” it then imagines that there was a time when matter was evenly distributed in space and in uniform motion, but that clinamen—a tiny random swerve in the motion of one of the atoms—set off a chain of collisions that led to the current lumpy state of the universe: a sort of ultimate “butterfly effect.” Mr. Greenwight, as a devout man, naturally substitutes God for clinamen, but leaves the subsequent hypothetical chain of cause-and-effect pretty much in place.
28 The text has “lieues” [leagues] instead of meters, which is presumably a misprint. Modern measurements give the slightly higher value of 299,792,458 meters per second.
29 Dominique-François Arago (1786-1853) was one of the most famous French scientists of his era, partly because he turned statesman after the revolution of 1848 and served as a government minister; his two brothers and his son also became famous as writers and politicians, though not as scientists. The notion that all heavenly bodies were inhabited, including the Sun, was a hangover from theological disputes regarding the plurality of worlds—which are discussed in more detail in the afterword—and crops up in numerous 19th century cosmological visions, including some by men of considerable scientific reputation, such as Humphry Davy.
30 It is not obvious why Mr. Greenwight selects this figure. He is obviously talking in degrees Centigrade (or Celsius), where the boiling-point of water is defined as 100 degrees, and the dissolution of any substance in water elevates its boiling-point. On the other hand, the rate of evaporation increases with temperature, and very few organisms—none of which Mr. Greenwight could have been aware—can long endure a temperature as high as eighty degrees. Mr. Greenwight evidently cannot imagine substances that are liquid over very different temperature-rages—methane, for example, or sulfur—forming suspension-media for life, but that is hardly surprising.
31 This is an arbitrary assumption that was subsequently opened up to very considerable doubt and is now considered to be—equally indubitably—quite false; unfortunately, Mr. Greenwight’s entire theory of planetary evolution hinges on this poor assumption.
32 Current estimates, made by the same method, only differ slightly, except with respect to Mercury, which Mr. Greenwight presumes to be a much more massive world than it is. Modern figures are: The Sun 332,946; Mercury 0.055; Venus 0.815; Mars 0.107; Jupiter 317.89; Saturn 95.17; Uranus 14.6; Neptune 17.2.
33 In this table, it is the estimates relating to the two outermost planets that are the least accurate. Modern estimates of the volumes, relative to that of the Earth, are: The Sun 1,303,600; Mercury 0.056, Venus 0.86; Mars 0.15; Jupiter 1319; Saturn 744; Uranus 67; Neptune 57. If the figures in Mr. Greenwight’s volume table were given on the same comparative basis as mine, they would be: The Sun 1,407,008; Mercury 0.060; Venus 0.96; Mars 0.14; Jupiter 1414; Saturn 734; Uranus 82; Neptune 105.
34 The text says that the densities shown are relative to that of the Earth, although they are obviously given by comparison with the density of water, but makes no such qualification with respect to the subsequent table giving the intensities of solar radiation, which obviously are, so I have amended the indications accordingly. Modern estimates of planetary densities relative to that of water are: The Sun 1.409, Mercury 5.5, Venus 5.25, Earth 5.52, Mars 3.94, Jupiter 1.33, Saturn 0.71, Uranus 1.27; Neptune 1.77. The intensity of solar radiation is no longer considered an important datum, usually being replaced in modern tables with the surface temperature of each planet, which is dependent on the composition of its atmosphere and rate of rotation as well as its distance from the Sun, on the inverse square of which Mr. Greenwight’s figures depend; because measurements of planetary distances were reasonably accurate at the time, so are his figures for the intensity of solar radiation.
35 Mr. Greenwight’s estimated figures for the rotational period of each world were based on relatively primitive telescopic observations; the figures for Mercury and Venus are wildly inaccurate. Modern estimates are: Mercury, 58.7 days; Venus 243 days; Mars 24 hours 27 minutes; Jupiter 9 hours 55 minutes; Saturn 10 hours 14 minutes; Uranus 17.2 hours. Modern estimates of surface gravitation, relative to Earth, are: Mercury 0.38; Venus 0.90; Mars 0.35; Jupiter 2.64; Saturn 1.16; Uranus 1.17; Neptune 1.2. If Mr. Greenwight’s figures were given on the same comparative basis they would be Mercury 1.15; Venus 0.95; Mars 0.44; Jupiter 2.55; Saturn 1.09; Uranus 1.11.
36 Parville: “This opinion is entirely in conformity with that issued at the French Académie des Sciences by a highly-esteemed astronomer, Mr. Faye. After studying the appearance of sunspots on more than 5000 photographs taken by Mr. Carrington, Monsieur Faye has arrived at the conclusion that the Sun is not, as Wilson, Herschel and Arago would have it, a solid globe covered by a cloudy layer and then a “luminous atmosphere,” nor, as Kirchhoff would have it, a liquid globe surrounded by a single atmosphere. It is still a gaseous sphere whose superficial parts tend to combine chemically. The associated parts become heavier and fall into the depths; they are replaced at the surface by new matter, which aggregates in its turn and falls back. That causes vertical currents. The rising matter dispatches from its trajectory the uniquely luminous superficial parts, and the inhabitant of Earth perceives a dark hollow surrounded by brilliant bands. Thus, one can explain the different appearances of the spots.”
The individuals cited who have not previously annotated are Hervé Faye (1814-1902), Richard Christopher Carrington (1826-1875), Alexander Wilson (1714-1786), William Herschel (1738-1822) and Gustave Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887).
37 “Caloric” was the name given to an obsolete “principle of heat,” a supposed form of matter to which the phenomena of warmth and combustion were once ascribed; Mr. Wintow is evidently attempting to redefine it in terms of motion rather than matter.
38 Parville: “Some people might object that the very different surface gravities of worlds might lead to very different constitutions. Thus, on the Sun, a man made like one of us would weigh 2000 kilograms instead of 70 kilograms. He would not, therefore, have enough muscular strength to get up again if he fell down. This objection is illusory, because life and muscular force depend on the force of aggregation of the given world, and that force of aggregation is proportional to the gravitational attraction itself. The proportionality holds true in its entirety; if the gravitation is greater, the muscular force increases in consequence.” This is not a sound argument, in terms of contemporary science; muscular strength in not proportionate to density.
39 The mountains were illusory, and it is not clear how the supposedly identical composition of the atmosphere had supposedly been “discovered” rather than merely assumed. Spectroscopic analysis, when it eventually became feasible, revealed that the atmosphere of Venus is, in fact, very different in composition from Earth’s.
40 Parville has “endomose” and might conceivably mean something other than endosmosis. In either case, the synthesis of the term from the Greek adds nothing to the description he has just given; such restatement terms do not qualify as explanations.
41 Parville: “h = (0.1x1)/(80x1/6)x(5/3) = 30/2400 = 1/80” This arithmetic formulation is obviously mis-rendered; the calculation is wrong because, based on the verbal formulation, there is a term missing. It should be observed, however, that the terms listed are not independent of
one another and that the equation is needlessly overcomplicated in consequence; its resultant, 1/80, is identical to one of the included terms (the ratio of masses), the others cancelling one another out. The whole operation is nonsensical in terms of modern theory.
42 Parville: “It has been assumed until recently that the Earth’s atmosphere did not extend beyond 18 leagues, but European astronomers are indeed tending to set the limit much higher.”
43 Parville: “The lunar mountains surpass 7000 meters.
44 Parville: “There are no more liquids because they have all evaporated as a result of the tiny atmospheric pressure. They have undoubtedly been fixed in combination with solids; otherwise, one would still sometimes perceive them in the atmosphere in the form of clouds, of which one never sees any trace.”
45 Parville: “Mars is, after the Moon, the world best known to astronomers. The planet’s disk presents dark and light stains of different colors. The contours are more luminous than the central part. Finally, at two opposite points—at the two poles—two bright patches are clearly discernible. All these features of the planet vary with the seasons. It is assumed that the reddish and light areas of Mars are the solids parts—the continents—and that the darker bluish areas are liquid. As for the polar patches, they are evidently made of ice, for, when spring arrives in one hemisphere that path visibly diminishes while the one in the opposite hemisphere increases. The ice-cap in the southern hemisphere is larger than the one in the northern hemisphere, which is easily explained by the inclination of the planet’s axis; the northern pole receives more heat than the southern pole, the quantities of heat received being in the ration of seven to five. If there is ice on Mars it is because there is snow, water, and rain, and in order for there to be water, it is necessary that there should also be an atmosphere to retain it in the liquid state. The meteorological conditions of the planet Mars must therefore resemble ours quite closely. These are, at least, the conclusions that have been drawn from the research of the German and English astronomers Beer, Mädler and John Phillips.”
An Inhabitant of the Planet Mars Page 16
