37. Author’s translation.
38. R. H. Codrington, The Melanesians: Studies in Their Anthropology and Folklore (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1891), introduced the concept of mana to the world, and M. Mauss, A General Theory of Magic (London: Routledge, 1972), originally published in 1902, generalized it.
39. B. Malinowski, Magic, Science and Religion (New York: Doubleday, 1954), pp. 19–20.
40. H. Hubert and M. Mauss, Sacrifice: Its Nature and Function (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972), pp. 172–4.
41. L. Thorndike, A History of Magic and Experimental Science, 8 vols (New York: Columbia University Press, 1958).
42. G. Parrinder, Witchcraft (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1958), is a classic from a psychological point of view; J. C. Baroja, The World of the Witches (London: Phoenix, 2001), from that of anthropology, with a salutary emphasis on Europe.
43. E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic among the Azande (London: Oxford University Press, 1929).
44. B. Levack, ed., Magic and Demonology, 12 vols (New York: Garland, 1992), collects major contributions.
45. I. Tzvi Abusch, Mesopotamian Witchcraft: Towards a History and Understanding of Babylonian Witchcraft Beliefs and Literature (Leiden: Brill, 2002).
46. B. S. Spaeth, ‘From goddess to hag: the Greek and the Roman witch in classical literature’, in K. B. Stratton and D. S. Kalleres, eds, Daughters of Hecate: Women and Magic in the Ancient World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), pp. 15–27.
47. L. Roper, Witch Craze: Terror and Fantasy in Baroque Germany (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004); Baroja, The World of the Witches.
48. Parrinder, Witchcraft.
49. G. Hennigsen, The Witches’ Advocate: Basque Witchcraft and the Spanish Inquisition (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1980).
50. A. Mar, Witches of America (New York: Macmillan, 2015).
51. I have in mind G. Zukav, The Dancing Wu Li Masters (New York: Morrow, 1979).
52. C. Lévi-Strauss, Totemism (London: Merlin Press, 1962); E. Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (London: Allen and Unwin, 1915); A. Lang, The Secret of the Totem (New York: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1905).
53. L. Schele and M. Miller, The Blood of Kings: Dynasty and Ritual in Maya Art (Fort Worth: Kimbell Art Museum, 1986).
54. E. Trinkaus et al., The People of Sungir (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014).
55. K. Flannery and J. Markus, The Creation of Inequality (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012); S. Stuurman, The Invention of Humanity: Equality and Cultural Difference in World History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017).
56. M. Sahlins, Culture and Practical Reason (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976); P. Wiessner and W. Schiefenhövel, Food and the Status Quest (Oxford: Berghahn, 1996), contrasts culture and ecology as rival ‘causes’ of the feast idea; M. Dietler and B. Hayden, Feasts (Washington DC: Smithsonian, 2001), is a superb collection of essays that cover the field; Hayden develops his theory of the feast as a means of power in The Power of Feasts (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014): M. Jones, Feast: Why Humans Share Food (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), is an innovative archaeological survey.
57. Marshack, The Roots of Civilization, is a highly controversial but insidiously brilliant study of Palaeolithic calendrical and other notation; K. Lippincott et al., The Story of Time (London: National Maritime Museum, 2000), an exhibition catalogue, is the best survey of the whole subject. J. T. Fraser, The Voices of Time (New York: Braziller, 1966) and Of Time, Passion and Knowledge (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), are fascinating studies of human efforts to devise and improve time-keeping strategies. As a general introduction, J. Lindsay, The Origins of Astrology (London: Muller, 1971), has not been bettered, but the controversial work of J. D. North has cast much light on the subject, especially Stars, Minds and Fate (London: Hambledon, 1989). M. Gauquelin, Dreams and Illusions of Astrology (Buffalo: Prometheus, 1969), exposed the scientific pretensions of twentieth-century astrology.
58. Plato, Timaeus, 47c.
59. S. Giedion, The Eternal Present (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962), is a stimulating introduction; see E. Neumayer, Prehistoric Indian Rock Paintings (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983), for the evidence from Jaora. J. E. Pfeiffer, The Creative Explosion (New York: Harper and Row, 1982), is a stimulating attempt to trace the origins of art and religion in Palaeolithic people’s search for order in their world.
60. K. Whipple et al., eds, The Cambridge World History of Food, 2 vols (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), ii, pp. 1502–9.
61. M. Douglas, Purity and Danger (London: Routledge, 1984), includes the best available study of food taboos; M. Harris, Good to Eat (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986), is a lively and engaging collection of studies from a materialist perspective.
62. F. Fernández-Armesto, Near a Thousand Tables (New York: Free Press, 2003).
63. C. Lévi-Strauss, The Elementary Structures of Kinship (Paris: Mouton, 1949), is the classic study, which, in essence, has withstood innumerable attacks; R. Fox, Kinship and Marriage (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967), is an excellent, dissenting survey. S. Freud, Totem and Taboo (Heller: Leipzig and Vienna, 1913), which traced incest prohibition to psychological inhibition, is one of those ever-admirable books: great but wrong.
64. K. Polanyi, Trade and Economy in the Early Empires (Glencoe: Free Press, 1957); J. G. D. Clark, Symbols of Excellence (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986); J. W. and E. Leach, eds, The Kula (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), is the best guide to the Melanesian island system.
65. K. Polanyi, The Great Transformation (New York: Rinehart, 1944), p. 43.
66. L. Pospisil, Kapauku Papuan Economy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967); B. Malinowski, Argonauts of the Western Pacific (London: Routledge, 1932).
67. M. W. Helms, Ulysses’ Sail (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2014); M. W. Helms, Craft and the Kingly Ideal (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1993).
68. A. Smith, Wealth of Nations, bk 1, ch. 4.
Chapter 3: Settled Minds: ‘Civilized’ Thinking
1. J. M. Chauvet, Dawn of Art (New York: Abrams, 1996); J. Clottes, Return to Chauvet Cave: Excavating the Birthplace of Art (London: Thames and Hudson, 2003).
2. A. Quiles et al., ‘A high-precision chronological model for the decorated Upper Paleolithic cave of Chauvet-Pont d’Arc, Ardèche, France’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, cxiii (2016), pp. 4670–5.
3. So thought E. Girard, Violence and the Sacred (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979), which is an eccentric classic.
4. H. Hubert and M. Mauss, Sacrifice: Its Nature and Function, 1898 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968), set the agenda for all subsequent work. For a modern conspectus, see M. F. C. Bourdillon and M. Fortes, eds, Sacrifice (London: Academic Press, 1980). B. Ralph Lewis, Ritual Sacrifice (Stroud: Sutton, 2001), provides a useful general history, concentrating on human sacrifice.
5. T. Denham et al., eds, Rethinking Agriculture: Archaeological and Ethnographical Perspectives (New York: Routledge, 2016), p. 117.
6. I originally made this suggestion in Food: A History (London: Bloomsbury, 2000). Many tests of the hypothesis have followed, with inconclusive but suggestive results. See, for instance, D. Lubell, ‘Prehistoric edible land snails in the Circum-Mediterranean: the archaeological evidence’, in J. J. Brugal and J. Desse, eds, Petits animaux et sociétés humaines: Du complément alimentaire aux resources utilitaires (XXIVe rencontres internationales d’archeologie et d’histoire d’Antibes) (Antibes: APDCA, 2004), pp. 77–98; A. C. Colonese et al., ‘Marine mollusc exploitation in Mediterranean prehistory: an overview’, Quaternary International, ccxxxiv (2011), pp. 86–103; D. Lubell, ‘Are land snails a signature for the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition in the Circum-Mediterranean?’, in M. Budja, ed., The Neolithization of Eurasia: Paradigms, Models and Concepts Involved, Ne
olithic Studies 11, Documenta Praehistorica, xxi (2004), pp. 1–24.
7. D. Rindos, The Origins of Agriculture: An Evolutionary Perspective (Orlando: Academic Press, 1984); J. Harlan, The Living Fields: Our Agricultural Heritage (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 239–40.
8. R. and L. Coppinger, What is a Dog? (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016); B. Hassett, Built on Bones: 15,000 Years of Urban Life and Death (London: Bloomsbury, 2017), pp. 65–6.
9. M. N. Cohen, The Food Crisis in Prehistory: Overpopulation and the Origins of Agriculture (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977); E. Boserup, The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: The Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure (London: G. Allen and Unwin, 1965).
10. C. O. Sauer, Agricultural Origins and Dispersals (New York: American Geographical Society, 1952).
11. C. Darwin, The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication (New York: Appleton, 1887), p. 327.
12. F. Trentmann, ed., The Oxford Handbook of the History of Consumption (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014).
13. B. Hayden, ‘Were luxury foods the first domesticates? Ethnoarchaeological perspectives from Southeast Asia’, World Archaeology, xxxiv (1995), pp. 458–69; B. Hayden, ‘A new overview of domestication’, in T. D. Price and A. Gebauer, eds, Last Hunters–First Farmers: New Perspectives on the Prehistoric Transition to Agriculture (Santa Fe: School of American Research Press, 2002), pp. 273–99.
14. Jones, Feast: Why Humans Share Food; M. Jones, ‘Food globalisation in prehistory: the agrarian foundations of an interconnected continent’, Journal of the British Academy, iv (2016), pp. 73–87.
15. M. Mead, ‘Warfare is only an invention – not a biological necessity’, in D. Hunt, ed., The Dolphin Reader (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1990), pp. 415–21.
16. L. H. Keeley, War Before Civilization (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), presents an irresistibly convincing picture of the violence of humankind’s remotest past.
17. B. L. Montgomery, A History of Warfare (London: World Publishing, 1968), p. 13.
18. J. A. Vazquez, ed., Classics of International Relations (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1990), has some fundamental texts. R. Ardrey, The Territorial Imperative (New York: Atheneum, 1966), and K. Lorenz, On Aggression (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1963), are the classic works on the biology and sociology of violence. J. Keegan, A History of Warfare (New York: Vintage, 1993), and J. Haas, ed., The Anthropology of War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), set the evidence in broad context.
19. R. Wrangham and L. Glowacki, ‘Intergroup aggression in chimpanzees and war in nomadic hunter-gatherers’, Human Nature, xxiii (2012), pp. 5–29.
20. Keeley, War Before Civilization, p. 37; K. F. Otterbein, How War Began (College Station: Texas A. and M. Press, 2004), pp. 11–120.
21. M. Mirazón Lahr et al., ‘Inter-group violence among early Holocene hunter-gatherers of West Turkana, Kenya’, Nature, dxxix (2016), pp. 394–8.
22. C. Meyer et al., ‘The massacre mass grave of Schöneck-Kilianstädten reveals new insights into collective violence in Early Neolithic Central Europe’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, cxii (2015), pp. 11217–22; L. Keeley and M. Golitko, ‘Beating ploughshares back into swords: warfare in the Linearbandkeramik’, Antiquity, lxxxi (2007), pp. 332–42.
23. J. Harlan, Crops and Man (Washington, DC: American Society of Agronomy, 1992), p. 36.
24. K. Butzer, Early Hydraulic Civilization in Egypt: A Study in Cultural Ecology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976).
25. K. Thomas, ed., The Oxford Book of Work (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), is an endlessly entertaining and stimulating anthology. Sahlins, Stone-Age Economics, defined the notion of Palaeolithic affluence. On the transition to agriculture and its effects on work routines, Harlan, Crops and Man, is outstanding.
26. Aristotle, Politics, 1.3.
27. L. W. King, ed., The Seven Tablets of Creation (London: Luzac, 1902), i, p. 131.
28. L. Mumford, The Culture of Cities (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Company, 1938), is an indispensable classic. P. Hall, Cities in Civilization (London: Phoenix, 1999), is essentially a collection of case studies. For Sumerian cities, see G. Leick, Mesopotamia, the Invention of the City (London: Allen Lane, 2001). A broad modern conspectus is Fernández-Armesto, Civilizations. P. Clark, ed., The Oxford Handbook of Cities in World History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), is a near-comprehensive survey. Hassett, Built on Bones, gallops through the disasters urban populations inflict on themselves.
29. Aristotle, Politics, 3.10.
30. S. Dalley, ed., Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 273.
31. M. Mann, The Sources of Social Power, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1986), offers an original perspective on the origins of the state from a historically informed sociologist. T. K. Earle, Chiefdoms (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), collects useful essays.
32. See A. Leroi-Gourham, Préhistoire de l’art occidental (Paris: Mazenod, 1965), for a binarist interpretation of prehistoric art.
33. Melanippe the Wise, in August Nauck, ed., Euripidis Tragoediae superstites et deperditarum fragmenta (Leipzig: Teubner, 1854), Fragment 484; W. H. C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962), i, p. 60.
34. Aristotle, Physics, 3.4, 203b.
35. Diels and Kranz, Fragmente, ii, Fragment 8.36–7.
36. F. Fernández-Armesto, Truth: A History (New York: St Martin’s, 1997), p. 36.
37. Taoist Zhuangzi Fung Yu-Lan, A History of the Chinese Philosophers, trans. D. Bodde (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1952), i, p. 223.
38. B. W. Van Nordern, Introduction to Classical Chinese Philosophy (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2011), p. 104.
39. D. W. Hamlyn, Metaphysics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), is a useful introduction. For some key texts, see E. Deutsch and J. A. B. van Buitenen, A Source Book of Vedanta (Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii, 1971). J. Fodor and E. Lepore, Holism: A Shopper’s Guide (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992), traces a lot of philosophical and practical implications.
40. Evans-Pritchard, Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic, is the agenda-setting anthropological case study. M. Loewe and C. Blacker, Oracles and Divination (London: Allen and Unwin, 1981), covers a wide range of ancient cultures. C. Morgan, Athletes and Oracles (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), is a superb, pioneering study of the oracles of ancient Greece. On later phases in China, see Fu-Shih Lin, ‘Shamans and politics’, in J. Lagerwey and Lü Pengchi, eds, Early Chinese Religion (Leiden: Brill, 2010), i, pp. 275–318.
41. J. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1906), iv, p. 55.
42. J. B. Pritchard, ed., The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011), p. 433; M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of Readings, ii: The New Kingdom (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976).
43. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, i, p. 747.
44. Pritchard, ed., The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures, p. 82.
45. P. Roux, La religion des turcs et mongols (Paris: Payot, 1984), pp. 110–24; R. Grousset, The Empire of the Steppes (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1970), remains unsurpassed on Central Asia generally, supplemented now by F. McLynn, Genghis Khan (Boston: Da Capo, 2015), and D. Sinor et al., eds, The Cambridge History of Inner Asia, 2 vols (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999, 2015).
46. Plato, Phaedrus, 274e–275b.
47. J. Goody, The Interface between the Written and the Oral (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), is classic; J. Derrida, Of Grammatology (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976), trans. G. C. Spivak, pursues the problem of what writing is; E. A. Havelock, The Muse Learns to Write (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986), is a s
urvey; Yates, The Art of Memory, is fascinating on mnemotechnics.
48. S. N. Kramer, The Sumerians (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963), pp. 336–41; F. R. Steele, ‘The Code of Lipit-Ishtar’, American Journal of Archeology, lii (1948).
49. J. B. Pritchard, Archaeology and the Old Testament (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1958), p. 211. M. E. J. Richardson, Hammurabi’s Laws (London: Bloomsbury, 2004), is a good study of the text. H. E. Saggs, The Babylonians (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), and J. Oates, Babylon (London: Thames & Hudson, 1979), are excellent accounts of the historical background.
50. J. B. Pritchard, ed., Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969), pp. 8–9; H. Frankfort et al., The Intellectual Adventure of Ancient Man (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1946), pp. 106–8; B. L. Goff, Symbols of Ancient Egypt in the Late Period (The Hague: Mouton, 1979), p. 27.
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