68. R. W. Bulliett, Conversion to Islam in the Medieval Period: An Essay in Quantitative History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979), pp. 16–32, 64–80.
69. Selected Works of Ramon Llull, ed. A. Bonner (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), is a convenient introduction to his thought. The terms of debate on spiritual conquest were set, originally in work of the 1930s and 1940s, by R. Ricard, The Spiritual Conquest of Mexico (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974). S. Neill, A History of Christian Missions (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1964), is the best short overall account of the spread of Christianity.
Chapter 6: Return to the Future: Thinking Through Plague and Cold
1. A. W. Crosby, The Columbian Exchange (1972), is now best consulted in the 2003 edition (Santa Barbara: Greenwood).
2. There is no satisfactory overall study, though work in progress by J. Belich may yield it. Meanwhile, see W. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (New York: Doubleday, 1976); M. Green, ed., ‘Pandemic disease in the medieval world’, Medieval Globe, i (2014).
3. H. Lamb, ‘The early medieval warm epoch and its sequel’, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, i (1965), pp. 13–37; H. Lamb, Climate, History and the Modern World (London: Routledge, 1995); G. Parker, Global Crisis: Climate Change and Catastrophe in the Seventeenth Century (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2013).
4. The essays collected in F. Fernández-Armesto, ed., The Global Opportunity (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998), and The European Opportunity (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998), provide an overview.
5. H. Honour, Chinoiserie: The Vision of Cathay (New York: Dutton, 1968), p. 125.
6. The next paragraph is based on F. Fernández-Armesto, Américo (Madrid: Tusquets, 2008), pp. 28–31.
7. F. Fernández-Armesto, Amerigo: The Man Who Gave His Name to America (New York: Random House, 2007), pp. 6–7.
8. W. Oakeshott, Classical Inspiration in Medieval Art (London: Chapman, 1969).
9. J. Goody, Renaissances: The One or the Many? (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009).
10. F. Fernández-Armesto, Millennium (London: Bantam House, 1995), p. 59.
11. J. Winckelmann, Reflections on the Painting and Sculpture of the Greeks (London: Millar, 1765), p. 4; K. Harloe, Winckelmann and the Invention of Antiquity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013). C. H. Rowland et al., eds, The Place of the Antique in Early Modern Europe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), is an important exhibition catalogue. F. Haskell, Taste and the Antique (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981), and Patrons and Painters (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1980), distil the work of the foremost scholar in the field.
12. Bacon’s Essays, ed. W. A. Wright (London: Macmillan, 1920), p. 204.
13. The next few paragraphs are based on work cited in P. Burke, F. Fernández-Armesto, and L. Clossey, ‘The Global Renaissance’, Journal of World History, xxviii (2017), pp. 1–30.
14. F. Fernández-Armesto, Columbus on Himself (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2010), p. 223.
15. Useful books on Columbus are W. D. and C. R. Phillips, The Worlds of Christopher Columbus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); F. Fernández-Armesto, Columbus (London: Duckworth, 1996); and Martínez Shaw and Pacero Torre, eds, Cristóbal Colón. E. O’Gorman, The Invention of America (Westport: Greenwood, 1972), is a controversial and stimulating study of the idea.
16. D. Goodman and C. Russell, The Rise of Scientific Europe (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1991), is a wonderful overview.
17. A. Ben-Zaken, Cross-Cultural Scientific Exchanges in the Eastern Mediterranean, 1560–1660 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010).
18. G. Saliba, Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007).
19. D. C. Lindberg, Theories of Vision from Al-kindi to Kepler (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), pp. 18–32.
20. H. F. Cohen, How Modern Science Came into the World. Four Civilizations, One 17th Century Breakthrough (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2010), especially pp. 725–9.
21. G. W. Leibniz, Novissima Sinica (Leipzig?, 1699).
22. S. Schapin, The Scientific Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996).
23. R. Evans, Rudolf II and His World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973).
24. F. Yates, Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), and The Art of Memory, are fundamental; J. Spence, The Memory Palace of Matteo Ricci (New York: Penguin, 1985), is a fascinating case study.
25. F. Bacon, Novum Organum, in J. Spedding et al., eds, The Works of Francis Bacon, 4 vols (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), iv, p. 237; L. Jardine and A. Stewart, Hostage to Fortune: The Troubled Life of Francis Bacon (New York: Hill, 1999).
26. T. H. Huxley, ‘Biogenesis and abiogenesis,’ in Collected Essays, 8 vols (London: Macmillan, 1893–8), viii, p. 229.
27. K. Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery (London: Routledge, 2002), pp. 6–19.
28. W. Pagel, Joan Baptista van Helmont (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), p. 36.
29. R. Foley, Working Without a Net (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), is a provocative study of Descartes’s context and influence. D. Garber, Descartes Embodied (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), is an important collection of essays. S. Gaukroger, Descartes’ System of Natural Philosophy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), is a challenging investigation of the philosopher’s thought.
30. The Philosophical Writings of Descartes, ed. J. Cottingham, R. Stoothoff, and D. Murdoch (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), i, pp. 19, 53, 145–50; ii, pp. 409–17; iii, p. 337; M. D. Wilson, Descartes (London: Routledge, 1978), pp. 127–30, 159–74, 264–70.
31. A. Macfarlane and G. Martin, The Glass Bathyscaphe: Glass and World History (London: Profile, 2002).
32. Saliba, Islamic Science.
33. J. M. Dietz, Novelties in the Heavens (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), is an engaging introduction. A. Koestler, The Sleepwalkers (London: Hutchinson, 1968), is a brilliant, spellbinding account of the early Copernican tradition. T. Kuhn, The Copernican Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 2003), is unsurpassed on Copernicus’s impact.
34. R. Feldhay, Galileo and the Church: Political Inquisition or Critical Dialogue (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 124–70.
35. D. Brewster, Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton, 2 vols (Edinburgh: Constable, 1855), ii, p. 138. R. Westfall, The Life of Isaac Newton, 2 vols (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), is the best biography, now rivalled in brief by P. Fara, Newton: The Making of a Genius (New York: Pan Macmillan, 2011). M. White, The Last Sorcerer (Reading, MA: Perseus, 1998), is a popular work intriguingly slanted toward Newton’s alchemical interests. H. Gilbert and D. Gilbert Smith, Gravity: The Glue of the Universe (Englewood: Teacher Ideas Press, 1997), is an engaging popular history of the concept of gravity. Newton’s self-description, reported by his fellow-member of the Royal Society, Andrew Ramsay, was reported in J. Spence, Anecdotes, Observations and Characters, of Books and Men (London: Murray, 1820), p. 54.
36. Needham, Science and Civilisation in China, ii, p. 142.
37. S. Lee, Great Englishmen of the Sixteenth Century (London: Constable, 1904), pp. 31–6.
38. J. Carey, ed., The Faber Book of Utopias (London: Faber and Faber, 1999), is a superb anthology, from which I draw my examples. K. Kumar, Utopianism (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1991), is a useful, simple, and short introduction.
39. N. Machiavelli, The Prince, ch. 18.
40. D. Wootton’s translation of The Prince (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1995) is the best. H. C. Mansfield, Machiavelli’s Virtue (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), is a profound and challenging reassessment of the sources of his thought. Q. Skinner, Machiavelli (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981), is a subtle short introduction.
> 41. J. G. A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), is the essential work. G. Q. Flynn, Conscription and Democracy (Westport: Greenwood, 2002), is an interesting study of the history of conscription in Britain, France, and the United States.
42. De Bary et al., eds, Sources of Indian Tradition, p. 7.
43. Ibid., pp. 66–7; T. De Bary, ed., Sources of East Asian Tradition, 2 vols (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), ii, pp. 19–21.
44. De Bary, ed., Sources of East Asian Tradition, prints an invaluable selection of sources. L. Chi-chao, History of Chinese Political Thought (Abingdon: Routledge, 2000), is a good short introduction. F. Wakeman, The Great Enterprise, 2 vols (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985), is the best introduction to Chinese history in the period. L. Struve, Voices from the Ming-Qing Cataclysm (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), evokes the period in texts.
45. J. T. C. Liu, Reform in Sung China: Wang-an Shih and His New Policies (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959), p. 54.
46. De Grazia, ed., Masters of Chinese Political Thought, has some useful texts. On the consequences of Chinese universalism for China’s external relations in what we think of as the Middle Ages, J. Tao, Two Sons of Heaven (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1988), is extremely interesting. W. I. Cohen, East Asia at the Center (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001), is a useful survey of the history of the region in the context of a Sinocentric vision of the world. On the political connotations of maps I rely on J. Black, Maps and Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998).
47. H. Cortazzi, Isles of Gold: Antique Maps of Japan (New York: Weatherhill, 1992), pp. 6–38.
48. E. L. Dreyer, Early Ming China: A Political History, 1355–1435 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1982), p. 120.
49. W. T. De Bary et al., eds, Sources of Japanese Tradition, 2 vols (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001–5), i, p. 467; M. Berry, Hideyoshi (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982), pp. 206–16.
50. I. Hirobumi, Commentaries on the Constitution (Tokyo: Central University, 1906). R. Benedict, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1946), is the classic Western account of Japanese values. Cortazzi, Isles of Gold, is a splendid introduction to Japanese cartography. J. Whitney Hall, ed., The Cambridge History of Japan, 6 vols (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989–93), is outstanding. G. B. Sansom, A Short Cultural History of Japan (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1978), is a helpful single-volume study.
51. K. M. Doak, A History of Nationalism in Modern Japan (Leiden: Brill, 2007), pp. 120–4; J. and J. Brown, China, Japan, Korea: Culture and Customs (Charleston: Booksurge, 2006), p. 90.
52. O’Donovan and O’Donovan, eds, From Irenaeus to Grotius, p. 728.
53. C. Carr, The Lessons of Terror: A History of Warfare against Civilians (New York: Random House, 2003), pp. 78–9.
54. H. Bull et al., Hugo Grotius and International Relations (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), is a valuable collection. There is a selection of political writings of Vitoria in English translation, edited by J. Laurence and A. Pagden, Vitoria: Political Writings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
55. C. Maier, Once Within Borders (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016), pp. 33–9.
56. L. Hanke, The Spanish Struggle for Justice in the Conquest of America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1949), p. 125.
57. C. Lévi-Strauss, The Elementary Structures of Kinship (Boston: Beacon, 1969), p. 46.
58. R. Wokler, ‘Apes and races in the Scottish Enlightenment’, in P. Jones, ed., Philosophy and Politics in the Scottish Enlightenment (Edinburgh: Donald, 1986), pp. 145–68. For a satirical sidelight on Lord Monboddo’s theories, T. L. Peacock’s novel Melincourt is one of the great comic achievements of English literature.
59. N. Barlow, ed., The Works of Charles Darwin, vol. 1: Diary of the Voyage of the HMS Beagle (New York: New York University Press, 1987), p. 109.
Chapter 7: Global Enlightenments: Joined-Up Thinking in a Joined-Up World
1. For sources of this and other materials on Maupertuis, see Fernández-Armesto, Truth: A History, pp. 152–8.
2. P. L. Maupertuis, The Figure of the Earth, Determined from Observations Made by Order of the French King at the Polar Circle (London: Cox, 1738), pp. 38–72.
3. J. C. Boudri, What Was Mechanical about Mechanics: The Concept of Force between Metaphysics and Mechanics from Newton to Lagrange (Dordrecht: Springer, 2002), p. 145 n. 37.
4. G. Tonelli, ‘Maupertuis et la critique de la métaphysique’, Actes de la journée Maupertuis (Paris: Vrin, 1975), pp. 79–90.
5. Parker, Global Crisis.
6. F. Fernández-Armesto, The World: A History (Upper Saddle River: Pearson, 2014).
7. L. Blussé, ‘Chinese century: the eighteenth century in the China Sea region’, Archipel, lviii (1999), pp. 107–29.
8. Leibniz, Novissima Sinica, preface; D. J. Cook and H. Rosemont, eds, Writings on China (Chicago and La Salle: Open Court, 1994).
9. I. Morris, in F. Fernández-Armesto, ed., The Oxford Illustrated History of the World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019), ch. 7.
10. E. Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ch. 1.
11. Strabo, Geography, 3.1.
12. Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. 38.
13. P. Langford et al., eds, The Writings and Speeches of Edmund Burke (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981–), ix, p. 248.
14. D. Hay, Europe: The Emergence of an Idea (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1957), is an excellent history of the concept. Long and short histories respectively can be found in N. Davies, Europe: A History (London: Bodley Head, 2014), and F. Fernández-Armesto, The Times Illustrated History of Europe (London: Times Books, 1995).
15. D. Diderot, ‘L’Art’, in L’Encyclopédie (1751), i, pp. 713–17.
16. D. Diderot, Les Eleuthéromanes ou les furieux de la liberté, in Œuvres complètes (Paris: Claye, 1875), ix, p. 16; E. A. Setjen, Diderot et le défi esthétique (Paris: Vrin, 1999), p. 78.
17. G. Avenel, ed., Oeuvres complètes (Paris: Le Siècle, 1879), vii, p. 184.
18. P. A. Dykema and H. A. Oberman, eds, Anticlericalism in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe (Leiden: Brill, 1993), is an important collection of essays. S. J. Barnett, Idol Temples and Crafty Priests (New York: St Martin’s, 1999), tackles the origins of Enlightenment anticlericalism in a fresh way. P. Gay, The Enlightenment, 2 vols (New York: W. W. Norton, 1996), is a brilliant work with a strong focus on the secular thinking of the philosophes, now challenged as the leading synthesis, at least on political thought, by J. Israel, The Radical Enlightenment (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002). S. J. Barnett, The Enlightenment and Religion (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004), challenges the primacy of secularism in the Enlightenment as, most recently, does U. Lehner, The Catholic Enlightenment: The Forgotten History of a Global Movement (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016).
19. J. A. N. de Caritat, Marquis de Condorcet, Sketch for an Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind, trans. J. Barraclough (London: Weidenfeld, 1955), p. 201.
20. J. B. Bury, The Idea of Progress (London: Macmillan, 1920), is an unsurpassed classic, stimulatingly challenged by R. Nisbet, History of the Idea of Progress (New Brunswick and London: Transaction, 1980), with an attempt to trace the idea back to Christian traditions of providence.
21. G. W. Leibniz, Theodicy (1710; new edn, London: Routledge, 1951), is the classic statement; G. M. Ross, Leibniz (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), is the best short introduction to his philosophy generally.
22. M. Grice-Hutchinson, The School of Salamanca (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1952), p. 96.
23. T. de Mercado, Summa de tratos (Book IV: ‘De la antigüedad y origen de los cambios’, fo. 3v) (Seville: H. Díaz, 1575).
24. K. Kwarteng, War and Gold (London: Bloomsbury, 2014).
26. Grice-Hutchinson, The School of Salamanca, p. 95.
27. Ibid., p. 94.
28. Ibid., p. 112. Other early sources are collected in A. E. Murphy, Monetary Theory, 1601–1758 (London and New York: Routledge, 1997). D. Fischer, The Great Wave (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), is a controversial but highly stimulating history of inflation.
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