Soon afterward Tzu-lai fell ill, was gasping for breath and was about to die. His wife and children surrounded him and wept. Tzu-li went to see him. “Go away,” he said. “Don’t disturb the transformation that is about to take place.” Then, leaning against the door, he continued, “Great is the Creator! What will he make of you now? Where will he take you? Will he make you into a rat’s liver? Will he make you into an insect’s leg?”
Tzu-lai said, “Wherever a parent tells a son to go, whether east, west, south, or north, he has to obey. The yin and yang are like man’s parents. If they pressed me to die and I disobeyed, I would be obstinate. What fault is theirs? For the universe gave me the body so I may be carried, my life so I may toil, my old age so I may repose, and my death so I may rest. Therefore to regard life as good is the way to regard death as good.
“Suppose a master foundryman is casting his metal and the metal leaps up and says, ‘I must be made into the best sword (called mo-yeh).’ The master foundryman would certainly consider the metal as evil. And if simply because I possess a body by chance, I were to say, ‘Nothing but a man! Nothing but a man!’ the Creator will certainly regard me as evil. If I regard the universe as a great furnace and creation as a master foundryman, why should anywhere I go not be all right? When the body is formed, we sleep. With it visibly there, we wake.”69
Tzu Sang-hu, Meng Tzu-fan, and Tzu Ch’in-chang70 were friends. They said to each other, “Who can live together without any special effort to live together and help each other without any special effort to help each other? Who can ascend to heaven, roam through the clouds, revolve in the realm of the infinite, live without being aware of it, and pay no attention to death?” The three looked at each other and smiled, completely understood each other, and thus became friends.
After a short while of silence, Tzu Sang-hu died. Before he was buried, Confucius had heard about it and sent (his pupil) Tzu-kung to take part in the funeral. One of the friends was composing a song and the other was playing a lute and they sang in harmony, saying, “Alas! Sang-hu. Alas! Sang-hu. You have returned to the true state but we still remain here as men!”
Tzu-kung hurried in and said, “I venture to ask whether it is in accord with the rules of propriety to sing in the presence of a corpse.”
The two men looked at each other, laughed, and said, “How does he know the idea of rules of propriety?” Tzu-kung returned and told Confucius, asking him, “What sort of men are those? There is nothing proper in their conduct, and they looked upon their bodies as external to themselves. They approached the corpse and sang without changing the color of countenance. I don’t know what to call them. What sort of men are they?”
“They travel in the transcendental world,” replied Confucius, “and I travel in the mundane world. There is nothing common between the two worlds, and I sent you there to mourn! How stupid! They are companions of the Creator, and roam in the universe of one and original creative force (ch’i). They consider life as a burden like a tumor, and death as the cutting off of an abscess. Such being their views, how do they care about life and death or their beginning and end? To them life is but a temporary existence of various elements in a common body which they borrow. They are unaware of their livers and gall (emotions) and oblivious of their ears and eyes (sensation). They come and go, and begin and end and none will know when all these will stop. Without any attachment, they stroll beyond the dusty world and wander in the original state of having no [unnatural] action (wu-wei). How can they take the trouble to observe the rules of propriety of popular society in order to impress the multitude?”
Comment. Chuang Tzu distinguished traveling in the transcendental world, or fang-wai (literally, “outside the sphere” of human affairs), and traveling in the mundane world, or fang-nei (literally, “inside the sphere”). Later the former came to mean Buddhism and the latter Confucianism. The first distinction was made here. To consider life as a temporary existence of various elements is highly Buddhistic, for in Buddhism an entity is but a temporary grouping of five elements. But Taoism is free from the quietism of Buddhism and emphasizes non-action. As Kuo Hsiang emphatically stated, however, taking no action does not mean doing nothing but simply doing nothing unnatural.71
Tsu-kung asked, “If that is the case, which world would you follow?”
“I am Nature’s prisoner,” said Confucius. “But let me share something with you.”
Tzu-kung said, “May I ask which is your world?”
Confucius said, “Fishes attain their full life in water and men attain theirs in the Tao. Those fish which attain a full life in water will be well nourished if a pool is dug for them, and those men who attain a full life in the Tao will achieve calmness of nature72 through inaction. Therefore it is said, ‘Fishes forget each other (are happy and at ease with themselves) in rivers and lakes and men forget each other in the workings of Tao.’ ”
“May I ask about those strange people?” said Tzu-kung.
Replied Confucius, “Those strange people are strange in the eyes of man but are equal to Nature. Therefore it is said, ‘The inferior man to Nature is a superior man to men, and the superior man to men is an inferior man to Nature.’ ”
Yen Hui asked (his master) Confucius, “When Meng-sun Ts’ai’s73 mother died, he wept without sniveling, his heart felt no distress, and he wore mourning but showed no sorrow. Yet, although wanting in these three essential demonstrations of filial piety, he is known all over the state of Lu as an excellent mourner. Is it possible that without actuality one can obtain the name? I am rather puzzled.”
Confucius said, “Meng-sun is perfect. He is more advanced than the wise ones. [Ordinary people] cannot minimize [their expressions of sorrow], and in doing so they already minimize [their true nature].74 Mengsun does not know how life comes about and does not know how death comes about. He does not prefer the one or the other. He lets himself be transformed into whatever it may be, and waits for further transformations which are not yet known. Moreover, how can one in the midst of transformation know that he will not be transformed? And how can one not being transformed know that he has already been transformed? Perhaps you and I are dreaming and have not wakened. Moreover, to him there has been a change of physical form but no decline in the spirit. There has been a change of lodging but no real death. Meng-sun, having awakened, wept when he saw that others wept. This is natural with him.
“People say to each other, ‘I am I.’ How do they know that their ‘I’ is the real ‘I’ Suppose you say you dream you are a bird and fly way up in the sky or you dream you are a fish and dive deep into the ocean. We cannot know whether the man now speaking is awake or is dreaming. As we reach the point of satisfaction, [we are so at ease with ourselves] that we do not even smile. When a smile does come forth, we do not even think of manipulating for it to come. We put ourselves at the manipulation [of Nature] and ignore all transformations. With this we enter into the realm of vacuous nature which is one.”
I-erh Tzu went to see Hsü Yu.75 Hsü Yu said, “What has Yao benefited you?”
“Yao said to me that I must personally practice humanity and righteousness,” replied I-erh Tzu, “and talk clearly about right and wrong.”
Hsü Yu said, “Then why have you come here? Yao has already treated you like criminals by branding you with humanity and righteousness and cutting off your nose with right and wrong. How can you travel on the road of freedom, ease, and flexibility?”
“Be that as it may,” said I-erh Tzu. “Still I like to travel along its edge.”
“No,” said Hsü Yu, “when a man is blind, he has nothing to do with the beauty of a human face or the colors of embroidered robes.”
I-erh Tzu said, “The ancient beauty Wu-chuang disregarded her beauty, strong man Chü-liang disregarded his strength, and the Yellow Emperor abandoned his wisdom. All these resulted from filing and hammering. How do you know the Creator may not remove my branding and repair my nose so that I may again be perfect in form and follow
you, sir?”
“That I don’t know,” replied Hsü Yu. “But let me tell you the essentials. Ah! my master, my master! He tears all things to pieces but did not specially make up his mind to be just. His blessing reaches the ten thousand generations but he has no partial love for anyone. He is more ancient than the highest antiquity but is not old. He covers heaven and supports the earth, and fashions the shapes of all things and yet he is not purposely skillful. This is the way he roams around.”
Yen Hui said, “I have made some progress.”
“What do you mean?” asked Confucius.
“I have forgotten humanity and righteousness,” replied Yen Hui.
“Very good, but that is not enough,” said Confucius.
On another day Yen Hui saw Confucius again and said, “I have made some progress.”
“What do you mean?” asked Confucius.
“I have forgotten ceremonies and music,” replied Yen Hui.
“Very good, but that is not enough,” said Confucius.
Another day Yen Hui saw Confucius again and said, “I have made some progress.”
“What do you mean?” asked Confucius.
Yen Hui said, “I forget everything while sitting down.”
Confucius’ face turned pale. He said, “What do you mean by sitting down and forgetting everything?”
“I cast aside my limbs,” replied Yen Hui, “discard my intelligence, detach from both body and mind, and become one with Great Universal (Tao).76 This is called sitting down and forgetting everything.”
Comment. This is not a cult of unconsciousness. Lu Ch’ang-keng has correctly said, “To forget means to have one’s mind in all things but not to have any mind about oneself, and to have one’s feelings in accord with all things but not to have any feelings of oneself.” Lu is here quoting Ch’eng Hao (Ch’eng Ming-tao, 1032-1085), who said that “there is nothing better than to become broad and extremely impartial and to respond spontaneously to all things as they come.”77 In fact, Chuang Tzu’s doctrine of “sitting down and forgetting everything” strongly stimulated Neo-Confucian thought.
Confucius said, “When you become one with the Great Universal you will have no partiality, and when you are part of the process of transformation, you will have no constancy (rigidity). You are really a worthy man. I beg to follow your steps.”
Tzu-yü and Tzu-sang were friends. Once it had rained continuously for ten days. Tzu-yü said, “Maybe Tzu-sang has become sick.” So he packed up some food and went to feed him. Arriving at the door, he heard something between singing and wailing accompanied by the lute, saying “O father! O mother! Is this due to Nature? Is this due to man?” It seemed that the voice was broken and the words faltered. Tzu-yü went in and asked, “Why are you singing like this?”
“I tried to think who has brought me to this extreme [poverty],” answered Tzu-sang, “but have found no answer. Would my father and mother want me to be poor? Heaven covers all things without partiality and the earth supports all things without partiality. Would heaven and earth make me so poor in particular? This is what I have tried to find out but have failed. Then it must have been fate that has brought me to such an extreme.” (3:1a-27b)
C. Additional Selections
1. The Nature and Reality of Tao
In the great beginning, there was non-being.78 It had neither being nor name. The One originates from it; it has oneness but not yet physical form. When things obtain it and come into existence, that is called virtue (which gives them their individual character). That which is formless is divided [into yin and yang], and from the very beginning going on without interruption is called destiny (ming, fate). Through movement and rest it produces all things. When things are produced in accordance with the principle (li) of life, there is physical form. When the physical form embodies and preserves the spirit so that all activities follow their own specific principles, that is nature. By cultivating one’s nature one will return to virtue. When virtue is perfect, one will be one with the beginning. Being one with the beginning, one becomes vacuous (hsü, receptive to all), and being vacuous, one becomes great. One will then be united with the sound and breath of things. When one is united with the sound and breath of things, one is then united with the universe. This unity is intimate and seems to be stupid and foolish. This is called profound and secret virtue, this is complete harmony.79 (ch. 12, nhcc, 5:8b-9b)
Comment. This is an important passage on metaphysics. It bears striking similarity to the philosophy of the Book of Changes.80 More than one Neo-Confucianist has commended Chuang Tzu for having really understood in this passage the substance of Tao. Chuang Tzu’s use of principle (li), of course, is after the hearts of Neo-Confucianists, whose whole philosophy is that of principle.
2. Tao Everywhere
Tung-kuo Tzu asked Chuang Tzu, “What is called Tao—where is it?”
“It is everywhere,” replied Chuang Tzu.
Tung-kuo Tzu said, “It will not do unless you are more specific.”
“It is in the ant,” said Chuang Tzu.
“Why go so low down?”
“It is in the weeds.”
“Why even lower?”
“It is in a potsherd.”
“Why still lower?”
“It is in the excrement and urine,” said Chuang Tzu. Tung-kuo gave no response.
Comment. Compare this with a most celebrated Buddhist dialogue:
Question: What is the Buddha?
Answer: It is the dried human excrement-removing stick.81
“Sir,” said Chuang Tzu. “Your question does not touch the essential. When inspector Huo asked the superintendent of markets about the fatness of pigs, the tests were always made in parts less and less likely to be fat. Do not insist on any particular thing. Nothing escapes from Tao. Such is perfect Tao, and so is great speech. The three, Complete, Entire, and All, differ in name but are the same in actuality. They all designate (chih, mark) the One.” (ch. 22, nhcc, 7:49a-50a)
3. Constant Flux
“Is the sky revolving around? Is the earth remaining still? Are the sun and the moon pursuing each other? Who prescribes this? Who directs this? Who has the leisure to push them to go on? Is there perhaps some mechanical arrangement so that they cannot help moving? Or is it perhaps that they keep revolving and cannot stop themselves? Do clouds cause the rain or does the rain cause the clouds? Who makes them rise and sends them down? Who has the leisure and delights in promoting such things? The wind rises from the north. It now blows east and now west, and now it whirls upward. Who is sucking and blowing it alternately? Who has the leisure to shake it about like this? Please tell me why?”
Wu-hsien waved to him and said, “Come, let me tell you. There are in nature the six ultimates and five constancies.82 When rulers follow them there will be order. When they disobey them, there will be calamity.” (ch. 14, nhcc, 5:35a-36a)
4. Evolution
All species have originative or moving power (chi).83 When they obtain water, they become small organisms like silk. In a place bordering water and land, they become lichens. Thriving on the bank, they become moss. On the fertile soil they become weeds. The roots of these weeds become worms, and their leaves become butterflies. Suddenly the butterfly is transformed into an insect, which is born under the stove (for its heat), and which has the appearance of having its skin shed. Its name is called chü-t’o. After a thousand days, chü-t’o becomes a bird called kan-yü-ku. The spittle of the kan-yü-ku becomes an insect called ssu-mi. The ssu-mi becomes a wine fly, which produces the insect called i-lu. The insect huang-k’uang produces the insect called chiu-yu. Mosquitos come from the rotten insects called huan. The plant yang-hsi paired with the bamboo which for a long time has had no shoot, produces the insect called ch’ing-ning. The ch’ing-ning produces the insect called ch’eng, ch’eng produces the horse, and the horse produces men. Man again goes back into the originative process of Nature. All things come from the originative process of Nature and return to the origina
tive process of Nature, (ch. 18, nhcc, 6:36a-b)
Comment. Is this natural evolution? Hu Shih (1891-1962) thinks so.84 Whether it is or not, it cannot be doubted that Chuang Tzu conceived reality as ever changing and as developing from the simple to the complex.
5. Tao as Transformation and One
Although the universe is vast, its transformation is uniform. Although the myriad things are many, their order is one. Although people are numerous, their ruler is the sovereign. The sovereign traces his origin to virtue (te, individual and essential character), and attains his perfection in Nature. Therefore it is said that in the cases of sovereigns of high antiquity, no [unnatural] action (wu-wei) was undertaken and the empire was in order. That was because of their natural virtue. When speech is seen through the point of Tao, the name of the sovereign of the world becomes correct. When functions and ranks are seen through Tao, the distinction between the ruler and the minister becomes clear. When ability is seen through Tao, the offices of the empire become regulated. When all things in general are seen through Tao, the response of things to each other becomes complete. Therefore it is virtue that penetrates Heaven and Earth, and it is Tao that operates in all things. Government by the ruler means human affairs, and when ability is applied to creative activities, it means skill. Skill is commanded by human affairs, human affairs are commanded by the distinction of functions, distinction is commanded by virtue, virtue is commanded by Tao, and Tao is commanded by Nature. Therefore it is said that ancient rulers of empires had no [selfish] desires and the empire enjoyed sufficiency. They undertook no [unnatural] action and all things were transformed. They were deep and tranquil and all their people were calm. The Record says, “When one is identified with the One, all things will be complete with him. When he reaches the point of having no subjective feelings, spiritual beings will submit to him.”85
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