4. The Equality of Past and Present
The world was well governed in earlier ages because of sages. It was well governed in later ages because of sages. The virtue of sages earlier or later was not different, and therefore good government in earlier ages and today is not different. The Heaven of earlier ages was the same as the Heaven of later ages. Heaven does not change, and its material forces do not alter. The people of earlier ages were the same as those of later ages. All were endowed with the original material forces, which are pure and harmonious and are not different in earlier or later ages. . . . In ancient times there were unrighteous people, and today there are gentlemen of established integrity. Good and evil intermingle. What age is devoid of them? (ch. 56, sppy, 18:13b, 16a)
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THE TAOISM OF HUAI-NAN TZU
Huai-nan Tzu (d. 122 b.c.) was the most prominent Taoist philosopher between ancient Taoism of the fourth century b.c. and Neo-Taoism of the third and fourth centuries a.d. His originality is negligible, but he maintained Taoism at the time when Confucianism had just assumed the dominant and exclusive role in government as well as in the realm of thought. Although his ideas are no more than reiteration and elaboration of Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu, at least he kept the fire of Taoism burning and helped to make possible the emergence of Neo-Taoism. Because of his essentially rational approach to metaphysics and cosmogony, it may be said that he indirectly, at least, prepared for that rationalistic critic Wang Ch’ung (27-100?).
His name was Liu An. As Prince of Huai-nan, he had thousands of scholars under his patronage. He plotted rebellion, failed, and committed suicide.
The following selections are from the work which is a joint product of himself and his guests.
THE HUAI-NAN TZU1
1. The Nature of Tao
Tao covers Heaven and supports Earth. It is the extent of the four quarters of the universe and the dimensions of the eight points of the firmament. There is no limit to its height, and its depth is unfathomable. It encloses Heaven and Earth and endows things [with their nature] before they have been formed. . . . Compressed, it can expand. Hidden, it can be manifest. Weak, it can be strong. Soft, it can be firm. . . . With it the mountain becomes high and the abyss becomes deep. Because of it, animals run and birds fly. Sun and moon shine and the planets revolve by it. Through it the unicorn emerges and the phoenix soars. . . . After having been polished and cut, it returns to simplicity. It acts without action and is in accord with Tao. It does not speak and is identified with virtue. Perfectly at leisure and without pride, it is at home with harmony. The myriad things are all different but each suits its own nature. Its spirit may be set on the tip of an autumn hair, but its greatness combines the entire universe. Its virtue softens Heaven and Earth and harmonizes yin and yang (passive and active cosmic forces). It regulates the four seasons and harmonizes the Five Agents (Metal, Wood, Water, Fire, and Earth). . . . Therefore those who understand Tao return to tranquillity and those who have investigated things ultimately rest with non-action, (sppy, l:1a-2a, 6b)
2. The Beginning of Reality
(1) There was a beginning. (2) There was a time before that beginning.2 (3) There was a time before the time which was before the beginning. (4) There was being. (5) There was non-being. (6) There was a time before that non-being. (7) There was a time before the time which was before that non-being.
(1) What is meant by “There was a beginning” is that there was accumulation which has not sprung unto activity. There were signs of sprouts and shoots but no physical form.3 Like insects moving,4 they are about to spring into life but their species have not yet been formed.
(2) At the time before that beginning, the material force (ch’i) of Heaven began to descend and that of Earth began to ascend. Yin and yang interacted and united, competing leisurely to expand in the universe. Embracing genuine character and containing harmony, they were interfused and stayed together.5 They wanted to come in contact with other things but they had not yet had physical form.
(3) At the stage when there was a time before the time which was before the beginning, Heaven contained harmony but had not yet descended, and Earth embraced the material force but had not yet ascended. It was empty, quiet, desolate, and dark, there was nothing which was even indistinct. At last the material force greatly penetrated the realm of darkness.
(4) “There was being” means that the myriad things appeared6 in great numbers. The roots, stems, branches, and leaves of plants were young, luxuriant, flourishing, and colorful. Insects flew, moved, crawled, and breathed. They could be touched and grasped and they could be counted in quantities.
(5) “There was non-being” means that the eye looked at it but could not see any form. The ear listened to it but could not hear any sound. The hand touched it but could not feel anything tangible. And as one looked at it, its limit could not be reached. Great and extensive, it could not be measured and was identical with light.
(6) At the time before that non-being, Heaven and Earth were enclosed and the myriad things were molded and produced. The great universal (Tao)7 was undifferentiated and noumenal. Nothing, however deep, extensive, vast, or great, existed beyond it. Even the minutest hair and the sharpest point could not exist within it. It was space without surrounding walls. It produced the root of being and non-being.
(7) At the time before the time which was before that non-being, heaven and earth had not come into existence and yin and yang had not been distinguished. The four seasons had not yet separated and the myriad things had not yet been born. It was extremely peaceful and very tranquil. Forms were not yet visible. It was like light in the midst of non-being which retreats and is lost sight of.8 (sppy, 2:1a-2a)
Comment. The seven stages were first mentioned by Chuang Tzu9 but Huai-nan Tzu provided them with a content. Hu Shih (1891-1962) has arranged them in this order: 7, 3, 6, 2, 1, 4, 5.10 Huainan Tzu’s view may not be scientific or logical. It is remarkable, however, that in an age of prevalent superstitions and common belief in prodigies, he should have maintained an absolutely naturalistic attitude toward creation.
3. Centrifugal Cosmogony
Before heaven and earth took shape, there was only undifferentiated formlessness. Therefore it was called the great beginning.11 Tao originated from vacuity and vacuity produced the universe (of space and time).12 The universe produced the material force. The material force was extremely secure.13 That which was clear and light drifted up to become heaven, and that which was heavy and turbid solidified to form earth. It was especially easy for the clear and refined to unite but extremely difficult for the heavy and turbid to solidify. Therefore heaven was formed first and the earth became definite later. The material forces14 of Heaven and Earth combined to form yin and yang. The concentrated forces of yin and yang became the four seasons, and the scattered forces of the four seasons became the myriad things. When the hot force of yang accumulated, fire was produced and the essence of the material force of fire became the sun. When the cold force of yin accumulated, water was produced and the essence of the material force of water became the moon. The excess of the essence of the sun and moon became the stars and planets. Heaven received the sun, moon, and stars, while earth received water and soil, (sppy, 3:1a)
Comment. In its broad outline this cosmogony has remained the orthodox doctrine among Chinese philosophers, including Neo-Confucianists.
4. Macrocosm and Microcosm
Heaven, earth, infinite space, and infinite time are the body of one person, and the space within the six cardinal points is the form of one man.15 Therefore he who understands his nature will not be threatened by Heaven and Earth, and he who comprehends evidences will not be fooled by strange phenomena. Therefore the sage knows the far from what is near, and to him all multiplicity is one. Men of old were one with the universe in the same material force, and were in harmony with the age. (sppy, 8:3a-b)
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NEGATIVE TAOISM IN THE LIEH TZU A
ND THE “YANG CHU CHAPTER”
The Taoism of Lao Tzu, Chuang Tzu, and Huai-nan Tzu (d. 122 b.c.), were all positive in that each represents something new. The Taoism in the Lieh Tzu and its “Yang Chu Chapter,” however, is purely negative.
The ideas of the equality of all things, indifference to life and death, following one’s nature, and accepting one’s fate are all original ingredients of Taoism. But the hedonistic philosophy in the “Yang Chu Chapter” is directly opposed to the Taoist philosophy of having no desire. In the Lieh Tzu, the Taoist doctrine of inaction, i.e., taking no artificial action, has degenerated into a complete abandonment of effort. Spontaneity is confused with resignation. And the Taoist doctrine of nourishing one’s nature is forgotten. Perhaps the only constructive aspect is the strong sense of skepticism, which, as in the case of Wang Ch’ung (27-100?), did help to set the Chinese mind free from dogmas and traditions.
Lieh Tzu lived in the fifth century b.c. and was a follower of Taoism, but the present book under his name is surely not original.1 Yang Chu (440–360 b.c.?) was known for his doctrine of self-preservation to the point of not plucking out a single hair even if he could benefit the entire world by doing so, according to Mencius.2 It was for this egoism that Mencius strongly attacked him.3 Records elsewhere confirm this teaching.4 This idea is reproduced in the “Yang Chu Chapter.” But other parts of the chapter contradict it, for self-preservation and indifference to life and death are obviously incompatible. Besides, indulging in sensuous pleasure was not Yang Chu’s way of preserving nature.5 In the opinion of many scholars, what happened was that at the time of political chaos in the third century, some writers, trying to escape from intolerable situations, utilized the names of Lieh Tzu and Yang Chu and took refuge under the purely negative aspects of Taoism.
A.--THE “YANG CHU CHAPTER”
Yang Chu said, “One hundred years is the limit of a long life. Not one in a thousand ever attains it. Suppose there is one such person. Infancy and feeble old age take almost half of this time. Rest during sleep at night and what is wasted during waking hours in the daytime take almost half of that. Pain and sickness, sorrow and suffering, death [of relatives], and worry and fear take almost half of the rest. In the ten and some years that is left, I reckon, there is not one moment in which we can be happily at ease without worry.
“This being the case, what is life for? What pleasure is there? For beauty and abundance, that is all. For music and sex, that is all. But the desire for beauty and abundance cannot always be satisfied, and music and sex cannot always be enjoyed. Besides, we are prohibited by punishment and exhorted by rewards, pushed by fame and checked by law. We busily strive for the empty praise which is only temporary, and seek extra glory that would come after death. Being alone ourselves, we pay great care6 to what our ears hear and what our eyes see, and are much concerned with what is right or wrong for our bodies and minds. Thus we lose the great happiness of the present and cannot give ourselves free rein for a single moment. What is the difference between that and many chains and double prisons?
“Men of great antiquity knew that life meant to be temporarily present and death meant to be temporarily away. Therefore they acted as they pleased and did not turn away from what they naturally desired. They would not give up what could amuse their own persons at the time. Therefore they were not exhorted by fame. They roamed as their nature directed and would not be at odds with anything. They did not care for a name after death and therefore punishment never touched them. They took no heed of fame, being ahead or being behind, or the span of life.”
Yang Chu said, “The myriad creatures are different in life but the same in death. In life they may be worthy or stupid, honorable or humble. This is where they differ. In death they all stink, rot, disintegrate, and disappear. This is where they are the same. However, being worthy, stupid, honorable, or humble is beyond their power, and to stink, rot, disintegrate, and disappear is also beyond their power. Thus life, death, worthiness, stupidity, honor, and humble station are not of their own making. All creatures are equal in these, [that is, they all return to nature].7 The one who lives for ten years dies. The one who lives for a hundred years also dies. The man of virtue and the sage both die; the wicked and the stupid also die. In life they were (sage-emperors) Yao and Shun;8 in death they were rotten bones. In life they were (wicked kings) Chieh9 and Chou;10 in death they were rotten bones. Thus they all became rotten bones just the same. Who knows their difference? Let us hasten to enjoy our present life. Why bother about what comes after death?”. . .
Yang Chu said, “Po-ch’eng Tzu-kao11 refused to pluck one hair to benefit things. He gave up his kingdom and became a hermit farmer.12 Great Yü13 refused to benefit himself [but instead devoted his energies to diverting floods to rivers and the sea], and his body was half paralyzed. Men of antiquity did not prefer to sacrifice one single hair to benefit the world. Nor did they choose to have the world support them. If everyone refrains from sacrificing even a single hair and if everyone refrains from benefiting the world, the world will be in order.” (sptk, 7: 1b-4b)
B.--THE LIEH TZU
1. Skepticism
King T’ang14 of Yin15 asked Hsia Chi,16 “Were there things in high antiquity?” Hsia Chi said, “If there were nothing in high antiquity, how could there be things today? Would it be all right for people in the future to say that there is nothing now?” “In that case,” said T’ang, “don’t things have before or after?” “There is no ultimate in the beginning or end of things,” said Hsia Chi. “The beginning may be the end and the end may be the beginning. Who knows their order? As to what exists outside of things or before the beginning of events, I do not know.”
“Is there any limit to the above, the below, or the eight directions?” asked T’ang. Hsia Chi answered, “I don’t know.” As T’ang persisted in asking, Hsia Chi said, “If there is nothing, then it is infinite. If there is something, then there must be a limit. How do I know? But beyond infinity there is no more infinity and within the unlimited there is no more unlimitedness. Infinity is followed by no more infinity, and the unlimited is followed by no more unlimitedness. From this I know there are infinity and the unlimited and do not know that there are the finite and the limited.”
“What is there beyond the four seas (China)?” T’ang further asked. Hsia Chi replied, “It is just like the district of Ch’i (same as China).”17 “How can you prove it?” asked T’ang. “I traveled east to Ying, where the inhabitants were the same as those here. I inquired about the countries further east and found that they were no different from Ying. I traveled west to Pin where the inhabitants were the same as those here. I inquired about the countries further west and found that they were no different from Pin. From this I know the regions within the four seas, the four wildernesses, and the four outermost regions are no different. Thus the lesser is always enclosed by a greater, and so on without end. Heaven and earth, which enclose the myriad things, are themselves enclosed. The enclosing of the myriad things never reaches a limit. Likewise, the enclosing of heaven and earth never reaches an end. How do I know that there is not a greater universe outside our own? This is something I do not know.” (sptk, 5:1a-b)
Those who maintain that heaven and earth are destructible are wrong and those who maintain that they are indestructible are also wrong. Whether they are destructible or indestructible, I do not know. However, it is the same in one case and also the same in the other.18 The living do not know the dead and the dead do not know the living. What is gone does not know what is to come and what is to come does not know what is gone. Why should I be concerned whether they are destructible or indestructible? (sptk, 1:6b)
2. Fatalism
Effort said to Fate (Ming, Destiny), “How can your achievement be equal to mine?” “What effect do you have on things,” replied Fate, “that you wish to compare with me?” “Well,” said Effort, “longevity and brevity of life, obscurity and prominence, honorable and humble stations, and poverty and richne
ss, are all within my power.”
Fate said, “P’eng-tsu19 was not superior to (sage-emperors) Yao and Shun in wisdom and yet he lived to an age of eight hundred. Yen Yüan (virtuous pupil of Confucius) was not inferior to the ordinary people in ability but he lived only to eighteen.20 Confucius was not inferior to the feudal lords in virtue, but he was in trouble between Ch’en and Ts’ai.21 (Wicked king) Chou of the Yin dynasty was not superior to the three men of virtue22 in conduct, but he occupied the throne. Chicha23 had no noble rank in Wu but T’ien Heng24 had the state of Ch’i all for himself. Po-i and Shu-ch’i starved at Shou-yang Mountain [rather than serve the conquerors of the Shang], whereas the Chi family (who controlled the state of Lu) were richer than Chan-ch’in (worthy official of Lu noted for integrity).25 If what you mentioned were all within your power, how is it that one enjoyed longevity while the other suffered brevity of life, that the sage was obscure while a violator of virtue was in a prominent position, that the worthy had a humble station while the stupid enjoyed honor, and that the good were poor but the wicked were rich?”
Effort said, “If, as you say, I have no effect on things, then are things, being what they are,26 the result of your control?”
“Since you already speak of it as fate,” replied Fate, “how can there be any control? As for me, if a thing is straight, I push it straighter, and if it is crooked, I let it remain so. Longevity, brevity of life, obscurity, prominence, humble and honorable stations, and richness and poverty all come of themselves. How can I know them? How can I know them?” (sptk, 6:1a)
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