13. If people with the capacity of attendants are not contented with the responsibilities of attendants, it will be a mistake. Therefore we know that whether one is a ruler or a minister, a superior or an inferior, and whether it is the hand or the foot, the inside or the outside, it is naturally so according to the Principle of Nature. Is it really due to the activity of man? Attendants should merely be contented with their stations and then they will never fail to govern each other. Mutually governing each other is like the four limbs and the various parts of the body each having its own function and at the same time employing and utilizing each other. (ch. 2, nhcc, 1:24a)
14. “This” and “that” oppose each other but the sage is in accord with both of them. Therefore he who has no deliberate mind of his own is silently harmonized with things and is never opposed to the world. This is the way to occupy the central position and to be in union with the profoundly mysterious ultimate in order to respond with things from any direction they may come. (ch. 2, nhcc, 1:28B)
15. When their physical forms are compared, Mount T’ai is larger than an autumn hair. But if everything is in accord with its nature and function, and is silently in harmony with its ultimate capacity, then a large physical form is not excessive and a small one is not inadequate. If the nature of everything is sufficient, the autumn hair will not alone consider its smallness as small and Mount T’ai will not alone consider its largeness as large. If whatever is sufficient in its nature is considered large, then nothing under heaven is more sufficient than the autumn hair. If whatever is sufficient in nature is not considered as large, then even Mount T’ai may be called small. This is why [Chuang Tzu] says, “There is nothing in the world greater than the tip of hair that grows in the autumn; while Mount T’ai is small.” If even Mount T’ai is regarded as small, nothing in the world is large, and if the autumn hair is regarded as large, nothing in the world is small. As there is nothing small or large, and nothing enjoys longevity or suffers brevity of life, therefore the chrysalis does not admire the cedrela but is happy and contented with itself, and the quail does not value the Celestial Lake and its desire for glory is thus satisfied. If I am satisfied with what comes from Nature and am contented with my nature and destiny, even Heaven and Earth will not be considered as lasting but will be considered as coexisting with me, and the myriad things will not be considered different but will be considered to be at ease with me. This being the case, why can’t everything coexist with Heaven and Earth and all things at ease with themselves be unified as one? (ch. 2, nhcc, 1:34a-b)
16. Everything has its principle and every affair has its proper condition. (ch. 2, nhcc, 1:35b)
17. Things have their spontaneity and principle has its ultimate. If one follows them and advances forward, one will deeply and silently come into accord with them. (ch. 2, nhcc, 1:40b)
18. The ordinary people will consider it lack of simplicity to harmonize all the changes throughout ten thousand years. With a tired body and a frightened mind, they toil to avoid this and to take that. The sage alone has no prejudice. He therefore proceeds with utter simplicity and becomes one with transformation and always roams in the realm of unity. Therefore, although the irregularities and confusions over millions of years result in a great variety and infinite multiplicity, as “Tao operates and given results follow,” the results of the past and the present are one. And as “things receive names and are what they are,” the myriad things are one in being what they are. Since there is nothing which is not what it is, and since there is no time in which results are not brought about, it may be called simplicity. (ch. 2, nhcc, 1:41b-42a)
19. If we insist on the conditions under which things develop and search for the cause thereof, such search and insistence will never end, until we come to something that is unconditioned, and then the principles of self-transformation will become clear. . . . There are people who say that shade is conditioned by the shadow, the shadow by the body, and the body by the Creator. But let us ask whether there is a Creator or not. If not, how can he create things? If there is, he is incapable of materializing all the forms. Therefore before we can talk about creation, we must understand the fact that all forms materialize by themselves. If we go through the entire realm of existence, we shall see that there is nothing, not even the shade, that does not transform itself behind the phenomenal world. Hence everything creates itself without the direction of any Creator. Since things create themselves, they are unconditioned. This is the norm of the universe. (ch. 2, nhcc, 1:46b-47a)
Comment. The denial of a Creator is complete. Whereas Chuang Tzu raised the question whether there is a Creator or not, Kuo Hsiang unreservedly denied its existence. Given the theory that all things come into existence by themselves and that their transformation is also their own doing, this is the inevitable outcome. Thus Taoist naturalism is pushed to its ultimate conclusion.
20. When a person is perfectly at ease with his spirit and his physical power, whether he lifts something heavy or carries something light, it is due to the fact that he uses his strength to a desired degree. When a person loves fame and is fond of supremacy and is not satisfied even when he has broken his back in the attempt, it is due to the fact that human knowledge knows no limit. Therefore what is called knowledge is born of losing sight of what is proper and will be eliminated when one is in silent harmony with his ultimate capacity. Being silently in harmony with one’s ultimate capacity means allowing one’s lot to reach its highest degree, and [in the case of lifting weights] not adding so much as an ounce. Therefore though a person carries ten thousand pounds, if it is equal to his capacity he will suddenly forget the weight upon his body. Though a person attends to ten thousand matters, [if his capacity is equal to them] he will be utterly unaware that the affairs are upon him. These are the fundamentals for the cultivation of life. . . . If one attains the Mean and silently reaches the proper limit, everything can be done. The cultivation of life is not to exceed one’s lot but to preserve the principle of things and to live out one’s allotted span of life. (ch. 3, nhcc, 2: 1a-2a)
21. Joy and sorrow are results of gains and losses. A gentleman who profoundly penetrates all things and is in harmony with their transformations will be contented with whatever time may bring. He follows the course of Nature in whatever situation he may be. He will be quietly harmonized and united with Creation. He will be himself wherever he may be. Where does gain or loss, life or death, come in? Therefore, if one lets what he has received from Nature take its own course, there will be no place for joy or sorrow. (ch. 3, nhcc, 2:6a-b)
22. Man in society cannot get away from his fellow beings. The changes in society vary from generation to generation according to different standards. Only those who have no deliberate minds of their own and do not use their own judgment can adapt themselves with changes and not be burdened by them. (ch. 4, nhcc, 2:7a)
23. By being a companion with Nature, Chuang Tzu meant to rely on the Principle of Nature and apply it to one’s own nature and destiny, like a child’s going straight forward. (ch. 4, nhcc, 2:12a)
24. When a thousand people gather together without a person as their leader, they will be either disorderly or disorganized. Therefore when there are many virtuous people, there should not be many rulers, but when there is no virtuous person, there should be a ruler. This is the Way of Heaven and the most proper thing to do. (ch. 4, nhcc, 2:16b)
25. Things happen by necessity, and principle, of course, prevails at all times. Therefore if we leave things alone, they will accomplish their purpose. As things have accomplished their purpose, there has never been a case where one’s life is not preserved. What is the use of being anxious about one’s life? (ch. 4, nhcc, 2:17b)
26. When the king does not make himself useful in the various offices, the various officials will manage their own affairs. Those with clear vision will do the seeing, those with sharp ears will do the listening, the wise will do the planning, and the strong will provide protection. What need is there to take any action? Only
profound silence, that is all. (ch. 4, nhcc, 2:25a)
27. Allow the foot to walk according to its capacity, and let the hand grasp according to its strength. Listen to what the ear hears and see what the eye sees. In knowing, stop at what cannot be known. In action, stop at what cannot be done. Employ [the faculties] as they would use themselves. Do things that would be done by themselves. Be unrestrained within your lot but do not attempt the least outside of it. This is the easiest way of taking no unnatural action. There has never been a case where no unnatural action is taken and yet one’s nature and destiny have not been preserved, and I have never heard of such a principle according to which the preservation of nature and life is not a blessing. (ch. 4, nhcc, 2:28a)
28. The principles of things are from the very start correct. None can escape from them. Therefore a person is never born by mistake, and what he is born with is never an error. Although heaven and earth are vast and the myriad things are many, the fact that I happen to be here is not something that spiritual beings of heaven and earth, sages and worthies of the land, and people of supreme strength or perfect knowledge can violate. . . . Therefore if we realize that our nature and destiny are what they should be, we will have no anxiety and will be at ease with ourselves in the face of life or death, prominence or obscurity, or an infinite amount of changes and variations, and will be in accord with principle. (ch. 5, nhcc, 2:40a)
Comment. Determinism and fatalism are here explained in terms of principle and correctness. Fate is not merely something beyond human control or understanding; it is necessary truth. Nowhere else in Chinese thought is it asserted so strongly.
29. To cry as people cry is a manifestation of the mundane world. To identify life and death, forget joy and sorrow, and be able to sing in the presence of the corpse is the perfection of the transcendental world. . . . Therefore principle has its ultimate, and the transcendental and the mundane world are in silent harmony with each other. There has never been a person who has roamed over the transcendental world to the utmost and yet was not silently in harmony with the mundane world, nor has there been anyone who was silently in harmony with the mundane world and yet did not roam over the transcendental world. Therefore the sage always roams in the transcendental world in order to enlarge the mundane world. By having no deliberate mind of his own, he is in accord with things. (ch. 6, nhcc, 3:19a-b)
Comment. As pointed out before, neither Wang Pi nor Kuo Hsiang considered Lao Tzu or Chuang Tzu a sage. Instead, their sage was Confucius. This is amazing, but the reason is really not far to seek. For to Kuo Hsiang, especially, the ideal person is a sage who is “sagely within and kingly without” and who travels in both the transcendental and mundane worlds. According to the Neo-Taoists, Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu traveled only in the transcendental world and were therefore one-sided, whereas Confucius was truly sagely within and kingly without.
30. The expert driver utilizes the natural capacity of horses to its limit. To use the capacity to its limit lies in letting it take its own course. If forced to run in rapid pace, with the expectation that they can exceed their capacity, horses will be unable to bear and many will die. On the other hand, if both worn-out and thoroughbred horses are allowed to use their proper strength and to adapt their pace to their given lot, even if they travel to the borders of the country, their nature will be fully preserved. But there are those who, upon hearing the doctrine of allowing the nature of horses to take its own course, will say, “Then set the horses free and do not ride on them,” and there are those who, upon hearing the doctrine of taking no action, will immediately say, “It is better to lie down than to walk.” Why are they so much off the track and unable to return? In this they have missed Chuang Tzu’s ideas to a very high degree. (ch. 9, nhcc, 4:11b)
31. By taking no action is not meant folding up one’s arms and closing one’s mouth. If we simply let everything act by itself, it will be contented with its nature and destiny. To have no alternative but [to rule an empire] is not to be forced into doing so by power or punishment. Straightly speaking, if only Tao is embraced and simplicity cherished, and if what has to be is allowed to run its maximum course, the world will naturally be contented with itself. (ch. 11, nhcc, 4:29a)
32. There is no preconceived give and take in things or in their principles of being. If things are natural, they will transform themselves without taking any action. (ch. 11, nhcc, 4:38b)
33. The two sages [the Great Yü and King Wen] had to govern their empires because there was disorder. [Emperor Shun] bowed and yielded the throne to [Yü] whereas [King Wen] had to resort to military expeditions [to take away the power from despotic King Chou] because the situations of the time were different. Neither of the two procedures is necessarily superior to the other. (ch. 12, nhcc, 5:17a)
34. In cutting a tree the workman does not take any action; the only action he takes is in plying the axe. In the actual managing of affairs, the ruler does not take any action; the only action he takes is in employing his ministers. If the ministers can manage affairs, the ruler can employ ministers, the axe can cut the tree, and the workman can use the axe, each corresponding to his capacity, then the Principle of Nature will operate of itself, not because someone takes action. If the ruler does the work of his ministers, he will no longer be the ruler, and if the ministers control the ruler’s employment, they will no longer be ministers. Therefore when each attends to his own responsibility, both ruler and the ruled will be contented and the principle of taking no action is attained. We must not fail to discern the term “taking no action.” In ruling an empire, there is the activity of ruling. It is called “taking no action” because the activity is spontaneous and follows the nature of things. And those who serve the empire also do so spontaneously. In the case of ministers managing affairs, even Shun and yü, as ministers, would still be regarded as taking action. Therefore when the superior and inferior are contrasted, the ruler is tranquil and the minister is active. . . . But in each case they allowed their nature to work and their destiny to unfold itself in its wonderful way. Thus neither the superior nor the inferior, neither antiquity nor the later period takes any action. Who then will? (ch. 13, nhcc, 5:25a-b)
35. Events that took place in the past have disappeared with the past. Some may be transmitted to us [in writing], but can this make the past exist in the present? The past is not in the present and every present event is soon changed. Therefore only when one abandons the pursuit of knowledge and lets Nature take its own course, and changes with the times, can he be perfect. (ch. 13, nhcc, 5:35a)
36. The ceremonies of ancient kings were intended to meet the needs of the time. When the time is past and the ceremonies are still not cast away, they will become an evil influence on the people and serve to hasten the start of affectations and imitation. (ch. 14, nhcc, 5:42a)
37. Humanity and righteousness are principles of human nature. Human nature undergoes changes and is different past and present. If one takes a temporary abode in a thing and then moves on, he will silently understand [the reality of things]. If, however, he stops and is confined to one place, he will develop prejudices. Prejudices will result in hypocrisy, and hypocrisy will result in many reproaches. (ch. 14, nhcc, 5:44b)
38. Although [Yao] ruled the empire, he delegated his government to his many officials and left matters to the myriad things themselves without interfering with them. This means he did not employ others for his own purpose. He was in accord with the people and let things take their own course without toiling himself. This means he was not employed by others as a servant. (ch. 20, nhcc, 7:18a)
39. Not only is it impossible for non-being to be changed into being. It is also impossible for being to become non-being. Therefore, although being as a substance undergoes infinite changes and transformations, it cannot in any instance become non-being. . . . What came into existence before there were things? If I say yin and yang came first, then since yin and yang are themselves entities, what came before them? Suppose I say Nature came first. But Nat
ure is only things being themselves. Suppose I say perfect Tao came first. But perfect Tao is perfect non-being. Since it is non-being, how can it come before anything else? Then what came before it? There must be another thing, and so on ad infinitum. We must understand that things are what they are spontaneously and not caused by something else. (ch. 22, nhcc, 7:54b-55b)
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THE SEVEN EARLY BUDDHIST SCHOOLS
When Buddhism first arrived in China,1 it was mixed up with popular religious beliefs and practices. As translation of Buddhist scriptures began in the middle of the second century,2 Buddhist thought started to develop in China. By the first quarter of the third century, there had been two Buddhist movements of thought: dhyāna (concentration) and prajñā (wisdom). The objective of dhyāna was so to meditate and to achieve calmness of mind as to remove ignorance and delusions, while that of prajñā was to gain the wisdom that things possess no self-nature (svabhāva).
As time went on, more and more prajñā literature became available in China and the movement became as prevalent as it was influential. This spread brought the Buddhists, the prajñā scholars especially, into contact with the Chinese literati. Although in the beginning this contact was slight, records show that Buddhist monks came under the influence of the Light Conversation3 movement and the metaphysical discussions of the Chinese literati, and followed the vogue. When Loyang, in the north (the capital of Chin, 265-420), fell to invaders and the government moved to the south, many of the literati and Buddhist monks also migrated south. Both groups being refugees, they became intimate and the interchange of ideas became free and frequent.
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