Comment. As Liu Tsung-chou has well pointed out, this essay is essentially an elaboration of Chou Tun-i’s doctrine of “considering tranquillity to be fundamental.”38
SELECTED SAYINGS39
3. There is no creature in the world that does not possess sufficient principle. I have always thought that rulers and ministers, fathers and sons, brothers, and husbands and wives have somewhat failed to fulfill their functions.40 (1:2a)* c ch s
4. Man is not the only perfectly intelligent creature in the universe. The human mind (in essence) is the same as that of plants and trees, birds and animals. It is only that man receives at birth the Mean of Heaven and Earth (balanced material force). (1:3a)* c m s
5. “The operations of Heaven (Nature) have neither sound nor smell.”41 Their substance is called Change; their principle, the Way; and their function, spirit. What Heaven imparts to man is called the nature. To follow the law of our nature is called the Way (Tao). Cultivation according to the Way is called education. . . .42 What exists before physical form [and is therefore without it] constitutes the Way. What exists after physical form [and is therefore with it] constitutes concrete things. Nevertheless, though we speak in this way, concrete things are the Way and the Way is concrete things. So long as the Way obtains, it does not matter whether it is present or future, or whether it is the self or others. (1:3a-b)* c ch m
6. Sincerity is the way to unify the internal and the external. “Without sincerity there will be nothing.”43 (1:7a)* m
7. “What is inborn is called nature.”44 Nature is the same as material force and material force is the same as nature. They are both inborn. According to principle,45 there are both good and evil in the material force with which man is endowed at birth. However, man is not born with these two opposing elements in his nature to start with. Due to the material force with which men are endowed some become good from childhood and others become evil.46 Man’s nature is of course good, but it cannot be said that evil is not his nature. For what is inborn is called nature. “By nature man is tranquil at birth.”47 The state preceding this cannot be discussed. As soon as we talk about human nature, we already go beyond it. Actually, in our discussion of nature, we only talk about (the idea expressed in the Book of Changes as) “What issues from the Way is good.”48 This is the case when Mencius speaks of the original goodness of human nature. The fact that whatever issues from the Way is good may be compared to the fact that water always flows downward. Water as such is the same in all cases. Some water flows onward to the sea without becoming dirty. What human effort is needed here? Some flows only a short distance before growing turbid. Some travels a long distance before growing turbid. Some becomes extremely turbid, some only slightly so. Although water differs in being clean or turbid, we cannot say that the turbid water (evil) ceases to be water (nature). This being the case, man must make an increasing effort at purification. With diligent and vigorous effort, water will become clear quickly. With slow and lazy effort, water will become clear slowly. When it is clear, it is then the original water. Not that clear water has been substituted for turbid water, nor that turbid water has been taken out and left in a corner. The original goodness of human nature is like the original clearness of water. Therefore it is not true that two distinct and opposing elements of good and evil exist in human nature and that each of them issues from it. This principle is the Mandate of Heaven. For anyone to obey and follow it is the Way. For anyone to follow it and cultivate it so that he attains his function [corresponding to his nature] is education. From the Mandate of Heaven to education, one can neither augment nor diminish [this function]. Such is the case of Shun, who [obeying and following the Way], possessed his empire as if it were nothing to him.49 (1:7b-8a)* c l m s
Comment. This passage has aroused considerable critical comments. In the Chu Tzu yü-lei (classified Conversations of Chu Hsi), there is more discussion on it than on almost any other subject concerning the Ch’engs.50 Ch’eng Hao used the expression “What is inborn is called nature,” which is the same as Kao Tzu’s saying, and thus seems to follow Kao Tzu’s theory that by nature man is born morally neutral or that his nature is a mixture of good and evil. But as Chu Hsi has pointed out, no such idea is intended. From the fact that water is clear originally, and turbid only when flowing has started, it is clear that Ch’eng meant two natures, namely, man’s basic nature, which is originally good, and his physical nature, which involves evil.51 Actually Ch’eng Hao did not depart from the general Neo-Confucian position so far as human nature is concerned. The trouble arises from ambiguity in the passage. One possible explanation for his using an expression identical with Kao Tzu’s is perhaps that its emphasis was on the process of production and reproduction.
8. Good and evil in the world are both the Principle of Nature. What is called evil is not original evil. It becomes evil only because of deviation from the Mean. Yang Chu (440–360 b.c.?) and Mo Tzu (fl. 479–438 b.c.)52 are examples of this. (2A:1b)
Comment. This utterance has been most severely condemned by Neo-Confucianists. It seems to destroy one of the foundations of Neo-Confucian metaphysics, namely, that nature, which is identical with principle, is good, and it also seems to tolerate evil. Judged by his whole philosophy, nothing is further from his mind. He merely echoed Mencius’ contention that things are unequal (see sec. 15). He accepted evil as a fact, but insisted on removing it. This is obvious in the preceding section.
9. The student should completely preserve his mind [so it will not be overcome by selfish desires].53 Although his studies may not be complete, as things come to him he should not fail to respond, but should respond according to his capacity. If he does not hit the mark, he will not be far from it. (2A:2a)* c m
10. The student should hold fast to the mind with seriousness. He should not be anxious. Instead he should nourish and cultivate it deeply and earnestly, immerse and soak himself in it. Only then can he be at ease with himself. If one seeks anxiously, that is merely selfishness. In the end he will not be able to understand the Way. (2A:2a)* ch m
11. A book on medicine describes paralysis of the four limbs as absence of jen.54 This is an excellent description. The man of jen regards Heaven and Earth and all things as one body. To him there is nothing that is not himself. Since he has recognized all things as himself, can there be any limit to his humanity? If things are not parts of the self, naturally they have nothing to do with it. As in the case of paralysis of the four limbs, the vital force no longer penetrates them, and therefore they are no longer parts of the self. Therefore, to be charitable and to assist all things is the function of a sage. It is most difficult to describe jen. Hence Confucius merely said that the man of jen, “wishing to establish his own character, also establishes the character of others, and wishing to be prominent himself, also helps others to be prominent. To be able to judge of others by what is in ourselves may be called the method of realizing jen.”55 The hope was that by looking at it this way, we might get at the substance of humanity. (2A:2a-b)
Comment. The all-important concept of jen went through radical developments in Neo-Confucianism, especially in Chang Tsai and the Ch’eng brothers.56 In the I-shu of the brothers, jen is discussed more than any other topic. In section 1, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and faithfulness are considered as expressions of jen. This is a new development, for traditionally the five are called the Five Constant Virtues, all being equal, whereas he and his brother, who developed the idea further, regarded jen as embracing the other four. Here jen is understood as a feeling for life, an even more radical interpretation of jen. As Chu Hsi explained, jen is the mind of Heaven and Earth to produce things. Since man has received this mind to be his own mind, he and Heaven and Earth and all things share the same mind. It is for this reason that there is penetration through all things.57
12. The investigation of principle to the utmost, the full development of nature, and the fulfillment of destiny (ming, fate)—these three things are to be accomplished simultaneous
ly. There is basically no time sequence among them. The investigation of principle to the utmost should not be regarded merely as a matter of knowledge. If one really investigates principle to the utmost, even one’s nature and destiny can be fulfilled. (2A:2b)
13. A student should understand the substance of jen (namely, the Principle of Nature)58 and make it concretely part of his own self. Then all that is necessary is to nourish it with moral principles. All such things as seeking the meanings of the classics are meant to nourish it. (2A:-2b)* c m
14. Formerly when [we] received instructions from Chou Mao-shu (Chou Tun-i),59 he often told [us] to find out wherein Confucius and Yen Tzu60 found their joy. (2A:2b)* c ch l m s
Comment. Neither Chou nor the Ch’eng brothers ever indicated where Confucius or Yen Tzu found his joy. In Analects, 6:9, Confucius praised his pupil for enjoying extremely simple life and in 7:15, Confucius said he himself found joy in having only coarse rice to eat, water to drink, and his bent arm for a pillow. But Neo-Confucianists were not contented with such a general expression of love of virtue, and so each of them described joy in his own way—as extensive study of literature and self-restraint with rules of conduct, self mastery, enjoying the Way, complete elimination of selfish desires, following the Principle of Nature, and so forth. This is an excellent example of how Neo-Confucianists always went back to ancient classics for authority and expressions but always interpreted them in their own way.61
15. Good and evil among things are both Principle of Nature. In the Principle of Nature, some things must be good and others bad, for “It is the nature of things to be unequal.”62 We should examine the matter and should not enter into evil ourselves and be dragged by any particular thing. (2A:3b)
16. We should know the origin of life and death, and existence and extinction, and be very clear and absolutely sure about them. There is only this principle governing them. When Confucius said, “If we do not yet know about life, how can we know about death?”,63 he spoke in a general way. The matter of death is part of life. There is no separate principle [governing it]. (2A:4a)
17. Wisdom, humanity, and courage are “the three universally recognized virtues,” but “the way by which they are practiced is one.”64 As it is one there is sincerity. It merely means to make three virtues real. Apart from these three virtues, there is no other kind of sincerity. (2A:5a)* m
18. The student need not seek afar but search right here in himself. All he has to do is to understand the Principle of Nature and be serious. This is where restraint lies [as against extensive learning]. In the section on the ch’ien (Heaven) hexagram of the Book of Changes, the learning of the sage is discussed, and in the section on the k’un (Earth) hexagram the learning of the worthy is discussed. They only say that “seriousness is to straighten one’s internal life and righteousness is to square one’s external life”65 and that “as seriousness and righteousness are established, one’s virtue will not be an isolated instance.”66 Even for a sage this is all; there is no other way. To force things and to drag things along is naturally not to be in accord with the Way and principle. Therefore when the Way and principle are followed, Heaven and man will be one and can no longer be separable. The great moving power is my own power. If it is nourished and not injured, it fills up all between heaven and earth.67 However, as soon as it is obscured by selfish ideas, it will be diminished and feeble. From this we know it is small. “Have no depraved thoughts.”68 “Never lack seriousness.”69 If one follows only these two teachings and puts them into practice, how can he make any mistake? Any mistake is due to the lack of seriousness and to incorrectness of thought. (2A:5b-6a)
19. “Change means production and reproduction.”70 This is how Heaven becomes the Way. To Heaven, the Way is merely to give life. What follows from this principle of life-giving is good. Goodness involves the idea of origination (yüan), for origination is the chief quality of goodness. All things have the impulses of spring (spirit of growth) and this is goodness resulting from the principle of life. “That which realizes it is the individual nature.”71 Realization is possible only when the myriad things fully realize their own nature. (2A:12b)* m s
Comment. To look upon the universe as an unceasing process of life-giving is a new development in Chinese thought and gives Neo-Confucianism a distinctive character. Few developments are as important as this. It is significant that the Ch’eng brothers did not talk about the idea of the Great Ultimate in the Book of Changes but instead they talked about Origination. The universe is conceived to be a continuous process of production, creation, and growth. This is a far cry from the Buddhist concept of annihilation or cycles and a definite advance over Chou Tun-i’s idea of the interaction of yin and yang and Chang Tsai’s idea of perpetual interfusing and intermingling of the material forces. Where did the idea come from? What is its bearing on the central Neo-Confucian doctrines of jen, and man forming one body with the universe? These are discussed elsewhere.72 It suffices to note here that running through the apparently quietistic philosophy of Ch’eng Hao there is this dynamic, vital, and creative life-giving concept.
20. As to the meaning of the Principle of Nature: To be sincere is to be sincere to this principle, and to be serious is to be serious about this principle. It is not that there is sincerity by itself and there is further seriousness by itself. (2A:13b)* m
21. The reason why it is said that all things form one body is that all have this principle, simply because they all have come from it. “Change means production and reproduction.”73 In production, once a thing is produced, it possesses this principle complete. Man can extend this principle to others, but because their material force with which they are endowed is dark, things cannot do so. But we must not say that they do not share principle with others. Simply because of selfishness, man thinks in terms of his own person, and therefore, from the point of view of principle, belittles them. If he lets go this person of his and views all things in the same way, how much74 joy would there be! Because the Buddhists do not know this, they think in terms of the self. As they cannot cope with it, they become disgusted and want to get rid of sense-perception, and because the source of their mind is not calm, they want to be like dry wood and dead ashes. But this is impossible. It is possible only with death. The Buddhists say all that because they in reality love their own persons and cannot let go. They are like those worms that carry things on their backs which are already unable to bear their load, and still add more things on their bodies, or like a man who sinks in a river holding a rock, and although its weight makes him sink deeper, never thinks of letting the rock go but merely resents its weight. (2A: 15b)* m
22. “All things are already complete in oneself.”75 This is not only true of man but of things also. Everything proceeds from the self, only things cannot extend [the principle in them] to others whereas man can. However, although man can extend it, when has he augmented it to any extent? And although things cannot extend it, when have they diminished it to any extent? All principles exist in complete sufficiency and are openly laid before us. How can we say that (sage-emperor) Yao,76 in fulfilling the Way of the ruler, added anything to it, or Shun,77 in fulfilling the Way of the son, added anything to it? They are always there as ever before. (2A:16a)* l m s
23. There is only one principle in the world. You may extend it over the four seas and it is everywhere true. It is the unchangeable principle that “can be laid before Heaven and Earth” and is “tested by the experience of the Three Kings.”78 Therefore to be serious is merely to be serious with this principle. To be humane (jen) is to be humane with this principle. And to be faithful is to be faithful to this principle. (Confucius) said, “In times of difficulty or confusion, [a superior man] acts according to it.”79 (His pupil) also said, “I do not yet have the confidence to do so.”80 They could say this much. Principle is extremely difficult to describe. (2A:19a)* m
24. The principles of things are most enjoyable. (2A: 19b)* m
25. There is nothing in the
world which is purely yin (passive cosmic force) or purely yang (active cosmic force), as yin and yang are interfused and irregular. Nevertheless, there cannot be anything without the distinction between rising and falling, and between birth and extinction. (2A:19b-20a)* m
26. By “the state of absolute quiet and inactivity” and “that which when acted upon immediately penetrates all things,”81 is meant that the Principle of Nature is self-sufficient and from the very beginning lacks nothing. It does not exist because of sage-emperor Yao nor does it cease to exist because of wicked Chieh.82 The constant principle governing the relations of father and son and of ruler and minister are unchangeable. When has it moved? Because the Principle of Nature is unmoved, therefore it is described as absolutely quiet. Although it is unmoved, when acted on it reacts and penetrates, for the influence is not from without. (2A:22b)* ch m s
27. Feeling the pulse is the best way to embody jen. (3:1a)
28. Observe the chicks. (One can see jen in this way.)83 (3:1a)
29. Chou Mao-shu (Chou Tun-i) did not cut the grass growing outside his window. When asked about it, he said that he felt toward the grass as he felt toward himself. (When Tzu-hou [Chang Tsai] heard the cry of a donkey he said the same thing.)84 (3:2a)
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