21. If we say that the material force which has already returned [to Nature] must be needed to become once more the expanding material force, such a theory would be entirely at odds with the transformation of Heaven and Earth. The transformation of Heaven and Earth naturally produces and reproduces without end. What is the need for any physical form that has perished or material force that has returned [to Nature] to constitute creation? Let us take an example near at hand in our own body. The opening and closing, going and coming [of the material or vital force] can be seen in breathing. It is not necessary to depend on inhaling the already exhaled breath for the second time in order to breathe out. Material (vital) force naturally produces it. The material force of man is produced from the true source (chen-yüan, true origin). The material force of Nature also naturally produces and reproduces without end. Take, for example, the case of tides. They dry up because yang (the sun) is very strong. When yin (the moon) is strong and tides are produced, it is not that the dried-up water is used to produce them. They are produced by themselves. Going and coming, and expansion and contraction, are but principle. As there is growth, there is decline; as there is morning, there is evening; and as there is going, there is coming. The universe is like a vast furnace. What cannot be burned up? (15:4b-5a)
22. The Way spontaneously produces all things. What has grown in the spring and what has matured in the summer are all productions of the Way. When things grow in the next season, we should not say that the material force already used for production now produces again. It is the Way that spontaneously produces and reproduces without end. (15:5b)
Comment. The significance of this new idea of the universe as production and reproduction has been indicated.53 Where did this idea come from? The idea that the characteristic of Heaven and Earth is to give life comes from the Book of Changes,54 But why did it suddenly occur with the Ch’eng brothers after having been dormant for a thousand years? In all likelihood, Chou Tun-i’s love of life and, through his influence, Ch’eng Hao’s love of the spirit of life certainly had something to do with it. Perhaps the Buddhist doctrine of “seeds” was a contributing factor. According to the Consciousness-Only School of Buddhism, the mind is a storehouse of “seeds” or effects of good and evil deeds which exist from time immemorial and become the energy to produce manifestations that make up the world. The Ch’engs had been for years interested in Buddhism, and it is not unreasonable to suppose that the idea of the generative “seeds” might have made some impression on them although there is no concrete evidence to prove the point.55 The most important factor, however, is the fact that the idea of “sustaining and supporting the life of one another” had been a long tradition in the Confucian School. Han Yü (768-824) brought it to the fore when he attacked Buddhism and Taoism in his celebrated essay, Yüan-tao (An Inquiry on the Way). From that idea it was a logical step to the concept of giving life or production and reproduction, not only as way of man’s life, but of the universe as well.56 All these ideas are expressed by the word sheng.
23. The doctrines of Buddhism are not worthy of matching the doctrines of our Sage. One need only compare them and having observed that they are different, leave Buddhism alone. If one tries to investigate all its theories, it is probably an impossible task. Before one has done that, he will already have been transformed into a Buddhist. But let us take a look at Buddhism from the point of view of facts. In deserting his father and leaving his family, the Buddha severed all human relationships. It was merely for himself that he lived alone in the forest. Such a person should not be allowed in any community. Generally speaking, he did to others what he himself despised. Such is not the mind of the sage, nor is it the mind of a superior man. The Buddhists themselves will not abide by the principles of the relationship between the ruler and minister, between father and son, and between husband and wife, and criticize others for not doing as they do. They leave these human relationships to others and have nothing to do with them. They set themselves apart as a special class. If this is the way to lead the people, it will be the end of the human race. As to their discourse on principle and the nature of things, it is primarily for the sake of life and death. Their feelings are basically love of life and fear of death. This is selfishness. (15:5b)
24. If one guards against depravity, that of course constitutes [con-concentration on]57 one thing. But if one concentrates on one thing, there will be no need to speak of being on guard against depravity. There are some who think that singlemindedness is difficult to recognize and not easy to work for, and do not know what to do. Singlemindedness is nothing but orderliness and graveness. With these the mind will be concentrated. As it is concentrated, it will naturally not do anything wrong. If one cultivates the mind for a long time, the Principle of Nature will become clear to him. (15:6b)
25. You cannot say that the teachings of the Buddhists are ignorance, for actually they are extremely lofty and profound. But essentially speaking, they can finally be reduced to a pattern of selfishness. Why do we say this? In the world there cannot be birth without death or joy without sorrow. But wherever the Buddhists go, they always look for an opportunity to tell subtle falsehood and exercise deception, and to preach the elimination of birth and death and the neutralization of joy and sorrow. In the final analysis this is nothing but self-interest. The teachings of the Taoists even carry with them an element of treachery, as evidenced in their sayings that the purpose of giving is to take away and the purpose of opening is to close.58 Furthermore, their general intention is to fool the people and to be wise themselves. When the ruler of Ch’in (221-206 b.c.) fooled his people, his tricks probably derived from the Taoists. (15:7b)
26. Within heaven and earth there is only the process of action and response. What else is there? (15:7b)
27. Empty and tranquil, and without any sign, and yet all things are luxuriantly present.59 The state before there is any response to it is not an earlier one, and the state after there has been response to it is not a later one. It is like a tree one hundred feet high. From the root to the branches and leaves, there is one thread running through all. We should not say that the state described above, which has neither form nor sign, depends on man to manipulate it when the occasion requires, in order to pull it into a track. Tracks are, after all, tracks.60 Actually there is only one track.61 [That is to say, all specific principles or tracks come from the same source.]62 (15:8a)
Comment. The first sentence is one of the most important sayings by Ch’eng I, and has been much quoted and discussed. Chu Hsi said that the passage is “nothing more than an explanation of [Chou Tun-i’s (1017-1073) dictum], The Ultimate of Non-being and also the Great Ultimate.’ ”63 This was said in spite of the fact that Ch’eng I never mentioned the Great Ultimate once! Chu Hsi usually saw in the philosophy of the two Ch’engs more of Chou’s philosophy than is justified.
28. Essentially speaking, the way of jen may be expressed in one word, namely, impartiality. However, impartiality is but the principle of jen; it should not be equated with jen itself. When one makes impartiality the substance of his person, that is jen. Because of his impartiality there will be no distinction between himself and others. Therefore a man of jen is a man of both altruism and love. Altruism is the application of jen, while love is its function. (15:8b)
29. “When you go abroad, behave to everyone as if you were receiving a great guest. Employ the people as if you were assisting at a great sacrifice.”64 [When Confucius said that], he meant nothing other than seriousness. Seriousness means unselfishness. As soon as one lacks seriousness, thousands of selfish desires arise to injure his humanity. (15:-9a)
30. In the state of absolute quiet and inactivity,65 all things are luxuriantly present. When it is “acted upon and it immediately penetrates all things,”66 the action is merely action from within. It is not that there is something outside with which to act on it. (15:9a)
31. To investigate things in order to understand principle to the utmost does not mean that it is n
ecessary to investigate all things in the world. One has only to investigate the principle in one thing or one event to the utmost and the principle in other things or events can then be inferred. For example, when we talk about filial piety, we must find out what constitutes filial piety. If principle cannot be investigated to the utmost in one event, investigate another. One may begin with either the easy or the most difficult, depending on the degree of one’s capacity. There are thousands of tracks and paths to go to the capital. Yet one can enter if he has found just one way. Principle can be investigated to the utmost [in this way] because all things share the same principle. Even the most insignificant of things and events has this principle. (15:-11a)
32. One who is serious is naturally vacuous (absolutely pure and peaceful, not being disturbed by incoming impression) and tranquil. But vacuity and tranquillity cannot be called seriousness. If one dwells in seriousness, one naturally behaves with an easy feeling. But if one “dwells in an easy feeling in order to carry it out in his practice,”67 there will not be an easy feeling, for what he dwells in is already too excessive. (15:11a)
33. “The successive movement of yin and yang constitutes the Way.”68 This principle is very profound and cannot be explained. The Way is that through which yin and yang operate. The very term “material force” implies a duality and the very expression “opening and closing” implies one thing acting on another. Wherever there is a duality, there is always such an action. The Way is that through which opening and closing operate, and opening and closing are the same as yin and yang. It is wrong for the Taoists to say that material force comes from the vacuity. There is no time sequence in yin and yang or in opening and closing. It should not be said that there is yin today and yang tomorrow. Take, for example, man’s body and shadow. As they are simultaneous, it should not be said that a man has his body today and his shadow tomorrow. To have them is to have them at the same time. (15:13b)
34. To know the Mandate of Heaven means to understand the Principle of Heaven (Nature). Surely to receive the mandate (ming, destiny) means to get the retribution of Heaven. Destiny is what has been decreed by Heaven. It is like a command. The retribution of Heaven is always like a shadow or an echo. It is normal to have its retribution and it is abnormal not to get the retribution. However, upon careful examination, we know that retribution is inevitable. Only because people seek it with shallow and limited views, they say that it is irregular. Furthermore, the Mandate of Heaven cannot be changed except by a man of virtue. (15:14a)
35. A meteor is not produced from any species; its species is the material force. Likewise, the unicorn is not produced from any species; it is also evolved from material force. The same is true of the origin of man in the beginning. When, for example, a sandbank rises from the beach, many insects, animals, and plants will grow there. They are not produced from any species. This, however, is something we can see. But in a fairly large island away out in the sea where we cannot see, who knows that there are not men living there who were not produced from any species? Ever since mankind came into existence, however, surely no man has evolved from material force. (15:14b)
36. There is no Way independent of yin and yang. What makes [the material force] yin or yang is the Way. Yin and yang are material force. Material force is what exists after physical form [and is with it], whereas the Way is what exists before physical form [and is without it]. What exists before physical form is hidden. (15:14b-15a)
37. When a thing disintegrates, its material force is forthwith exhausted. There is no such thing as material force returning to its source. The universe is like a vast furnace. Even living things will be burned to the last and no more. How can material force that is already disintegrated still exist? Furthermore, what is the need of such a disintegrated material force in the creative process of the universe? It goes without saying that the force used in creation is vital and fresh. (15:15b)
38. When knowledge is profound, action will be thorough. No one ever knows without being able to act. If one knows without being able to act, the knowledge is superficial. Because they know the danger, people do not eat poisonous herbs when hungry and do not tread on water or fire. People do evil simply because they do not know. (15:16b)
Comment. Both Huang Tsung-hsi69 and Sun Ch’i-feng (1584-1675)70 maintained that Ch’eng I anticipated Wang Yang-ming’s (Wang Shou-jen, 1472-1529) famous doctrine of the unity of knowledge and action.71 However, Ch’eng merely says that true knowledge will lead to action but does not say that action leads to knowledge, as Wang does. It is significant to note, however, that the relationship between knowledge and action has always been of great concern to the Confucianists.72 Ch’eng also distinguishes two types of knowledge, that obtained through information and that obtained through the exercise of moral nature,73 thus echoing Chang Tsai.74 This does not mean intuitive knowledge, but knowledge obtained through experience.75
39. The material force of the true source is the source from which material force is produced and is not mixed with external force. It is nourished and cultivated only by external force. It is like fish in water. The life and nature of fish are not made by the water, but they must be nourished and cultivated by water in order that they may live. Man’s position in the force of the universe is not different from that of fish in water. As to the nourishment of food, it is a way in which man is nourished and cultivated by external force. And as to inhaling and exhaling of breath, it is only the operation of opening and closing. The breath that has just been exhaled is not the material force that is inhaled in the next breath. But the true source can create material force by itself. The material force that is inhaled simply enters the human body when the body closes. This material force is not needed to assist the true source. (15:17b)
40. When asked about humanity, the Teacher said: It is up to you gentlemen to think for yourselves, gather and examine what the sages and worthies have said about it, and personally realize what humanity is. Because Mencius said, “The feeling of commiseration is what we call humanity,”76 later scholars have therefore considered love to be humanity. The feeling of commiseration is of course [an expression of] love. But love is feeling whereas humanity is the nature. How can love be taken exclusively as humanity? Mencius said that the feeling of commiseration is humanity because he had said that the feeling of commiseration is the beginning of humanity.77 Since it is called the beginning of humanity, it should not be called humanity itself. It is wrong for Han yü to say universal love is humanity.78 A man of humanity of course loves universally. But one may not therefore regard universal love as humanity. (18:1a)
41. Question: “Filial piety and brotherly respect are the root of humanity.”79 Does that mean that jen can be achieved through filial piety and brotherly respect? Answer: No. It means that the practice of humanity begins with filial piety and brotherly respect. Filial piety and brotherly respect are items in the practice of humanity. It is all right to say that they are the root of the practice of humanity but not all right to say that they are the root of humanity itself. For humanity is nature,80 while filial piety and brotherly respect are its function. There are in our nature only humanity, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom. Where do filial piety and brotherly respect come in?81 The controlling factor of humanity is love, and there is no greater love than to love parents. Hence it is said, “Filial piety and brotherly respect are the root of jen!” (18:1b)
42. Question: What is the difference between jen and the mind? Answer: The mind is comparable to seeds of grain. The nature of growth is jen. (18:2a)
Comment. The concept of jen has gone through many stages of development. From the earliest idea of jen as a specific virtue, notably benevolence, Confucius changed it to the general virtue (humanity). Throughout the ages it has been variously interpreted as affection, love, universal love, impartiality, consciousness, unity with Heaven and Earth, and so forth, but the idea that jen is “seed,” which is life-giving, is a unique contribution of Ch’eng I. As such it brought the
concept of jen to the highest stage of development up to this time. It is more than a pun on the word jen, meaning seed. It is the generative force of all virtues. It is this life-giving quality that enables man to form a unity with Heaven, Earth and all things and makes it possible for him to overcome evil. This is the reason why the Ch’eng brothers said that jen embraces the four virtues of righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and faithfulness instead of treating all five virtues on an equal basis and calling them the Five Constant Virtues as has been done in tradition.82 Chu Hsi hits the right note in saying that jen embraces the four virtues because of its spirit of life and because it is originating.83 No doubt the Ch’eng brothers’ general concept of the universe as a process of production and reproduction has contributed to the idea.84
43. Question: What about people who devote all their effort to seriousness in order to straighten the internal life but make no effort to square the external life? Answer: What one has inside will necessarily be shown outside. Only worry that the internal life is not straightened. If it is straightened, then the external life will necessarily be square. (18:3a)
44. Someone asked what the first step was in the art of moral cultivation. Answer: The first thing is to rectify the mind and make the will sincere. The sincerity of the will depends upon the extension of knowledge and the extension of knowledge depends upon the investigation of things. The word ko (investigate) means to arrive, as it is used in the saying “the spirits of imperial progenitors have arrived.”85 There is principle in everything, and one must investigate principle to the utmost. There are many ways to do this. One way is to read books and elucidate moral principles. Another way is to discuss people and events of the past and present, and to distinguish which are right and which are wrong. Still another way is to handle affairs and settle them in the proper way. All these are ways to investigate the principle of things exhaustively.
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