Comment. Sung-Ming Neo-Confucianists never looked upon principle as if it were a thing. They differentiated what exists before form [and is therefore with it] (hsing-erh-shang), such as principle, and what exists after physical form [and is therefore with it] (hsing-erh-hsia), such as a thing. Tai, however, would not accept this distinction. In this respect he resembles Wang Fu-chih (Wang Ch’uan-shan, 1619-1692) and Yen Yüan (Yen Hsi-chai, 1635-1704).
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K’ANG YU-WEI’S PHILOSOPHY OF GREAT UNITY
Like most Confucianists, K’ang Yu-wei (1858-1927)1 attempted to put Confucian teachings into practice in government and society. But as no other Confucianist had ever done, he changed the traditional concepts of Confucius, of the Confucian Classics, and of certain fundamental Confucian doctrines for the sake of reform.
Several factors made this transformation unavoidable. In the last decades of the nineteenth century, the call for reform was getting louder and louder in China. The influence of Western science and Christianity was increasingly felt. Interest in Buddhism was being revived. The controversy between the Modem Script School of those who upheld the Classics written in ancient script, and the Modern Script School of those who accepted the Classics written in the script current during the second and first centuries b.c., which was modern at the time, arose once more. The Modern Script School was winning because instead of regarding Confucius as only a great teacher and the Classics as purely historical documents, it looked upon Confucius as an “uncrowned king” to reform the world and the Classics as containing “esoteric language and great principles” to support his reforms. K’ang promoted this current of thought and eventually became the center of the school. In addition, the fire of the rationalistic Neo-Confucianism of Ch’eng I (Ch’eng I-ch’uan, 1033-1107) had burned out by this time. Scholars gradually turned to the idealistic Neo-Confucianism of Lu Hsiang-shan (Lu Chiu-yüan, 1139-1193) and Wang Yang-ming (Wang Shou-jen, 1492-1529), which is imbued with the spirit of purposeful action instead of Ch’eng-Chu’s cold and abstract speculation. Not only was there this general trend toward Lu-Wang. He was also strongly influenced by his teacher, Chu Tz’u-ch’i (Chu Chiu-chiang, 1807-1881), a prominent scholar at the time, who was an enthusiastic follower of the Lu-Wang School. It was the combination of these factors that caused him to enunciate his extraordinary theories that Confucius was first and last a reformer, that history evolves through three stages toward utopia, or the Age of Great Unity, and that humanity (jen)2 is ether and electricity.
K’ang presented Confucius as a reformer who purposely attributed institutional reforms to antiquity in order to have precedents, even to the extent of imagining great achievements of sage-emperors Yao and Shun3 whose historicity is doubtful. This bold dismissal of the age-old Confucian idols virtually amounted to a revolution. Liang Ch’i-ch’ao (1873-1929), his outstanding disciple, was not exaggerating when he said that K’ang’s three most important works were comparable to a cyclone, a mighty volcanic eruption, and a huge earthquake.4 But it is interesting to note that K’ang the reformer had to look to the past for authority and that his authority, in turn, had to look to the past for authority also, even if he had to invent it.
Whatever conservatism he had, however, was more than offset by his novel concept of historical progress. The theory of three ages is not new. Tung Chung-shu (c.179–c.104 b.c.), for example,5 great leader of the Modern Script School who had a tremendous influence on K’ang, had propounded it. But K’ang conceived of history not as a cycle, as Tung did, but as an evolution. The source of this idea is probably Western, but he insisted on tracing it to Confucius.
He set forth his theory of the Three Ages in his commentary on a passage in the Confucian Classic, the Book of Rites, in which Confucius is said to have taught that history progresses from the Age of Chaos to that of Small Peace and finally to that of Great Unity. K’ang advocated this doctrine not so much as an echo of the new idea of progress as to provide a philosophical foundation for his political reforms. In the 1880’s, when he was still a young man, he plunged into reform movements. Together with other scholars, he repeatedly petitioned the emperor to reconstruct China. In 1898, he actually engineered the dramatic Hundred Days Reform. In this reform he was convinced that though China was not ready for the Age of Great Unity, she had to enter upon an Age of Small Peace. Edicts were issued in rapid order to reform the political, educational, economic, and military institutions, modeled after the West, only to be defeated by the conservative Empress Dowager and he had to flee for his life.
T’ang’s ideas about the Age of Great Unity are so radical that the book in which he expresses them, the Ta-t’ung shu (Book of Great Unity) was kept unpublished until 1935, eight years after his death. There was already a hint of the idea in his commentary on the passage mentioned above. This commentary was written in 1884-1885. But the book, based on earlier drafts of the 1880’s, was not finished until 1901-1902. Anyway, since he called for the total abolition of nations, families, classes, and all kinds of distinctions, his doctrine was too far ahead of his age to be accepted. Other philosophers had had utopias before. But different from them, K’ang drew inspiration from many sources—Confucian, Christian, and Buddhist—and spelled out in detail the organization and program of the ideal society, such as communal living, public nurseries for all children, and cremation and the use of ashes for fertilizer.
The philosophical bases for this utopia are two, namely, his theory of historical progress and his interpretation of the central Confucian ethical concept of humanity. He equates this with what Mencius called “The mind that cannot bear [to see the suffering of] others.”6 Humanity is also the power of attraction that unites all people as one. It is the force of origination permeating everywhere. It is ether and electricity. It is production and reproduction. It is universal love. In the traditional Confucian theory of love, one proceeds from affection for one’s parents to being humane to all people, and finally to kindness to all creatures.7 The Age of Great Unity is the logical culmination of this gradual extension. K’ang was certainly revolutionary in both vision and action, but in this as in other respects he remained within the main stream of Confucianism.
SELECTIONS
1. The Three Ages
In the progress of mankind there have always been definite stages. From the clan system come tribes, which in time become nations, and from nations the Great Unification comes into existence. From the individual man the rule of tribal chieftains gradually becomes established, and from the rule of tribal chieftains the correct relationship between ruler and minister is gradually defined. From autocracy gradually comes [monarchic] constitutionalism, and from constitutionalism gradually comes republicanism. From men living as individuals gradually comes the relationship between husband and wife, and from this the relationship between father and son is gradually fixed. From the relationship between father and son gradually comes the system in which blessings are also extended to all the rest of mankind. And from this system, that of Great Unity comes into being, whereby individuals again exist as individuals [in a harmonious world without the bonds of father and son, husband and wife, and so forth].
Thus in the progress from the Age of Disorder to the Age of Rising Peace, and from the Age of Rising Peace to the Age of Great Peace, their evolution is gradual and there are reasons for their continuation or modification. Examine this process in all countries and we shall find that the pattern is the same. By observing the infant one can foretell the future adult and further the future old man, and by observing the sprout one can foretell the future tree large enough to be enclosed with both arms and further the future tree high enough to reach the sky. Similarly, by observing what the Three Systems8 of the Hsia (2193–1752 b.c.?), Shang (1751–1112 b.c.) and Chou (1111–249 b.c.) added to or subtracted from the previous period, one can infer the changes and modifications in a hundred generations to come.
When Confucius wrote the Spring and Autumn Annals, he extende
d it to embrace the Three Ages. During the Age of Disorder, he considered his own state (of Lu) as native and all other Chinese feudal states as foreign. In the Age of Rising Peace, he considered all Chinese feudal states as native and the outlying barbarian tribes as foreign. And in the Age of Great Peace, he considered all groups, far or near, big or small, as one. In doing this he was applying the principle of evolution.
Confucius was born in the Age of Disorder. Now that communications have extended throughout the great earth and important changes have taken place in Europe and America, the world has entered upon the Age of Rising Peace. Later, when all groups throughout the great earth, far and near, big and small, are like one, when nations will cease to exist, when racial distinctions are no longer made, and when customs are unified, all will be one and the Age of Great Peace will have come. Confucius knew all this in advance.
However, within each age there are Three Rotating Phases. In the Age of Disorder, there are the phases of Rising Peace and Great Peace, and in the Age of Great Peace are the phases of Rising Peace and Disorder. Thus there are barbarian red Indians in progressive America and primitive Miao, Yao, T’ung, and Li tribes in civilized China. Each age can further be divided into three ages. These three can further be extended (geometrically) into nine ages, then eighty-one, then thousands and tens of thousands, and then innumerable ages. After the arrival of the Age of Great Peace and Great Unity, there will still be much progress and many phases.
It will not end after only a hundred generations. (Lun-yü chu, or Commentary on the Analects, Wan-mu ts’ao-t’ang ts’ung-shu or Thatched Hall Surrounded by Ten Thousand Trees Series ed., 12:10b-11a)
Comment. Coupled with the cycle theory, Confucianists have always looked upon history as a movement of ups and downs. In modifying his theory of the Three Ages with that of Three Rotating Phases, K’ang was in effect perpetuating this traditional outlook.
In his methods and institutions Confucius emphasized their adaptability to the times. If, in the age of primitivism and chaos, when the transforming influence of moral doctrines had not operated, one were to practice the institutions of Great Peace, it would surely result in great harm. But at the same time, if, in the Age of Rising Peace, one still clung to the institutions of the Age of Disorder, it would also result in great harm. At the present time of Rising Peace, for example, we should promote the principles of self-rule and independence and the systems of parliamentarianism and constitutionalism. If institutions are not reformed, great disorder will result. Confucius thought of these troubles and prevented them. He therefore inaugurated the doctrine of the Three Rotating Phases so that later generations may adapt and change in order to remove harm. This is Confucius’ perfect humanity in establishing institutions. (Chung-yung chu, or Commentary on the Doctrine of the Mean, Yen-K’ung ts’ung-shu or Exposition of Confucianism Collection ed., p. 36b)
2. Confucius’ Institutional Reforms
In high antiquity, people esteemed valor and competed in physical strength. Chaos was impending and misery, prevalent. Heaven was sorry for them and decided to save them. It was not to save one generation alone but a hundred generations. Therefore Heaven produced the sagely king of spiritual intelligence. He did not become a ruler of men but a master of creation of institutions. The entire world followed him and all people, far or near, flocked to him. In the eight hundred years from the Warring States Period (403–222 b.c.) to Later Han (25-220), all scholars regarded Confucius as the king. . . . He had the actuality of people flocking to him. Therefore he had the actuality of a king. It is a matter of course that one who had the actuality of a king should have the name of a king. But the great Sage reluctantly followed the path of expediency. He humbly negated the reality of the rank and title of a king. He [promoted institutional reforms] by attributing them to ancient kings and the king of Lu,9 and only assumed the role of a “king behind the scene” and an “uncrowned king.” (K’ung Tzu kai-chi k’ao or An Investigation on Confucius’ Institutional Reforms, Wan-mu ts’ao-t’ang ts’ung-shu ed., 8:1b-2a)
Founders of religions in all great lands have always reformed institutions and established systems. Even ancient Chinese philosophers did this. All Chinese moral institutions were founded by Confucius. His disciples received his instructions and transmitted his teachings, so that they spread over the whole empire and changed its traditional customs. Among the outstanding changes have been costumes, the three-year mourning (of one’s parents’ deaths), marriage ceremonies, the “well-field” land system,10 the educational system, and the civil service examination system. (ibid., 9:1a)
Confucius was the founder of a religion. He was a sagely king with spiritual intelligence. He was a counterpart of Heaven and Earth and nourished all things. All human beings, all events, and all moral principles are encompassed in his great Way. Thus he was the Great Perfection and Ultimate Sage the human race had never had. . . .
On what basis did he become founder of a religion and a sagely king with spiritual intelligence? Answer: On the Six Classics.11 They are the works of Confucius. This was the unanimous opinion before the Han dynasty (206 b.c.–a.d. 220). Only when the student knows that the Six Classics are the works of Confucius does he understand why Confucius was a great sage, was the founder of a religion, encompassed ten thousand generations, and has been venerated as supreme. Only when a student knows that Confucius was founder of a religion and that the Six Classics are his works does he know Confucius’ achievements in wiping out the Age of Disorder and bringing about the Age of Great Peace, and that everyone with blood and vital force is daily benefited by his great achievements and great virtue and should never forget it. (ibid., 10:1a-b)
Comment. K’ang was the first to regard Confucius as the founder of a religion, and he vigorously advocated Confucianism as the state religion. Because of this he was branded in his late years as reactionary. He may also be so considered in his theory that Confucius wrote all the Six Classics. He was not so reactionary, however, when he devoted a whole book to show that all Classics in the ancient script were forgeries, for this theory uprooted the whole foundation of Ch’ing scholarship and forced scholars to reexamine the entire Confucian heritage in new lights.
All the Sage wanted was to benefit the world. Therefore “his words are not necessarily [literally] truthful. . . . He simply speaks what is right.”12 “Without evidence, they (ancient institutions) could not command credence, and not being credited, the people would not follow them.”13 Therefore he put all institutions into operation by citing the ancient kings of the Three Dynasties14 as precedents and authority. If it is said that in his work a sage should not cite others as precedent and authority, then one would be equating Confucius, who possessed spiritual transforming power, with an obstinate inferior man. (ibid., 11:1b)
3. The Mind That Cannot Bear to See the Suffering of Others
In consciousness and perception, forms and sounds of objects are transmitted to my eyes and ears. They rush against my soul. Chilly and cold, they attack the active aspects (yang, active cosmic force) of my existence. Dark and quiet, they enter my negative aspects (yin, passive cosmic force). They continue at moderate speed as if they could not stop. Of what are they the clue? Is it what Europeans call ether? Is it what the ancients called the “mind that cannot bear [to see the suffering of] others”? Do all people have this mind that cannot bear to see the suffering of others? Or do I alone have it? And why should I be deeply affected by this clue?
Thereupon Master K’ang says: Do I not have a body? If not, how do I have knowledge or affection? Since I have a body, can that which permeates my body as well as the material force (ch’i) of Heaven, the concrete stuff of Earth, and the breath of man be cut off or not? If it could be cut off, then one could draw a knife and cut water to pieces. If it cannot be cut off, then it is like material force filling space and being possessed by all things, like electricity operating through material force and penetrating everything, like water spreading all over the land and permeating eve
rything, and like blood-vessels spreading through the body and penetrating every part of it. Cut the material force off the mountain and it will collapse. Cut the blood-vessels off the body and it will die. And cut the material force off the earth and it will disintegrate. Therefore if man cuts off the substance of love which is the mind that cannot bear to see the suffering of others, moral principles of mankind will be destroyed and terminated. If these are destroyed and terminated, civilization will stop and mankind will revert to barbarism. Furthermore, barbarism will stop and men will revert to their original animal nature.
Great is the material force of origination. It created Heaven and Earth. By Heaven is meant the spiritual substance of a thing (the universe), and by man is also meant the spiritual substance of a thing (the body). Although they differ in size, they are no different in partaking the great force of great origination, just as if both were scooping up small drops of water from the great sea. Confucius said, “Earth contains spiritual energy, which produces the wind and thunder. As a result of movements of wind and thunder, a countless variety of things in their changing configurations ensue, and the myriad things show the appearance of life.”15 Spirit is electricity with consciousness. The electric light can be transmitted everywhere, and spiritual energy can act on everything. It makes spiritual beings and gods spiritual. It produces Heaven and Earth. In its entirety it is origination; divided, it becomes man.16 How subtle and how wonderful does spirit act on things! There is nothing without electricity, and there is nothing without spirit. Spirit is the power of consciousness, the consciousness of the soul, spiritual intelligence, clear intelligence, and clear character. These are different in name but the same in actuality. As there is consciousness, there is attraction. This is true of the lodestone. How much more is it with man! Not being able to bear to see the suffering of others is an instance of this power of attraction. Therefore both humanity and wisdom are stored in the mind, but wisdom comes first. Both humanity and wisdom are exercised (in action), but humanity is nobler. . . .
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