27--The Abhidharma School is an old Hīnayāna (Small Vehicle) school whose origin is traced to the third century b.c. It was introduced into China in the fourth century a.d. It maintains that all dharmas are real and that they are produced by the Six Primary Causes and Four Subsidiary Causes. The Six Primary Causes are (1) the Active Cause, or the leading factor, (2) the Coexistent Cause, or a cause working with another, (3) the Similar-species Cause, or a cause helping other causes of its kind, (4) the Concomitant Cause, or a cause making an effect arise under any circumstance, (5) the Universally Prevalent Cause, a cause always connected with wrong views which produce all the errors of men, and (6) the Cause Ripening at Later Times, a cause which produces its effect later. The Four Subsidiary Causes are (1) the Cause Condition, or the chief condition which acts as the chief cause, for example, the wind and water that cause the wave, (2) the Immediate Condition, which immediately follows a preceding condition, such as waves following one another, (3) the Objective Condition, or the objective environment, like the basis or the boat, and (4) the Upheaving Condition, the condition that brings all conditions to the climax, such as the last wave that upsets the boat.
28--See above, p. 190.
29--The word ming means literally dark or to disappear.
30--This refers to Chuang Tzu, ch. 2, nhcc, l:26b-27a, Giles, p. 37. Chuang Tzu severely criticized the Confucianists and Moists for their one-sided opinions, on the basis of which they engaged in extensive controversy.
31--Also called Chung lun (Mādhymika śāstra), ch. 6, sec. 24, tsd, 30:32-33.
32--Saddharmapuṇdarīka sūtra. ch. 1, tsd, 9:5. Cf. Soothill, trans., The Lotus of the Wonderful Law, p. 65. The point has not been brought out in Soothill’s paraphrase.
33--Ch. 1, tsd, 14:538. Fame for Purity is another title for the Vimalakīrtinirdés sūtra (Scripture Spoken by Vimalakīrti). It is what the name Vimalakīrti means.
34--This is lakshaṇa in Sanskrit, meaning character, features, form, appearance, etc. True character, however, means essential character, that is, nature.
BUDDHIST IDEALISM: HSÜAN-TSANG OF THE CONSCIOUSNESS-ONLY SCHOOL
1--Wei-shih in China, yuishiki in Japanese, and vijñaptimātra in Sanskrit.
2--Named after Asaṅga’s Mahāyānasamparigraha (Acceptance of the Great Vehicle) annotated by Vasubandhu, translated into Chinese in 531, 563, and 648-649 (this time by Hsüan-tsang), and known as the She ta-ch’eng lun (Treatise on Acceptance of the Great Vehicle). For a French translation, see Bibliography.
3--Variously spelled as Hsüan-chang, Hiuen-tsang, etc.
4--He entered a monastery of the Pure Land School at thirteen. From 618 he went to monasteries in Ch’ang-an, Ch’eng-tu, and other places and studied the doctrines taught in those places. In search of the true doctrine, he left China against imperial order. But when he returned he was given an overwhelming welcome at the capital and when he died the emperor suspended audiences for three days. For his biography see Hsü kao-seng chuan (Supplement to the Biographies of Eminent Monks), chs. 4-5, tsd, 50:446-459.
5--The Chinese title for this is Wei-shih san-shih lun. For translations, see Bibliography.
6--For a French translation, see Bibliography.
7--For K’uei-chi’s biography, see Sung Kao-seng chuan (Biographies of Eminent Monks Compiled in the Sung Period [9881), ch. 4, tsd, 50:725-726.
8--Vishaya in Sanskrit and ching in Chinese, meaning the sphere or realm in which the mind gropes for an object which is its own imagination. In its various contexts, it means the external world, external objects, the sphere of color and the eye, the sphere of sound and ear, etc., domain of perception, and the like.
9--For the translation of “dharma,” see Appendix, comment on Fa.
10--Lakshaṇa in Sanskrit. See Appendix, comment on Hsiang.
11--On this concept, see below, ch. 24, n.19.
12--This characterization is by Hu Shih (1891-1962). See his Chung-kuo chung-ku ssu-hsiang shih ti t’i-yao (Essentials of the History of Medieval Chinese Thought), 1932, p. 28a.
13--For their movements, philosophies, and controversy, see Chan, Religious Trends in Modern China, pp. 105-126.
14--See below, ch. 43.
15--This insertion is based on K’uei-chi’s Ch’eng wei-shih lun shu-chi, Nanking edition, 1901, 2:82. This work is included in tsd, 43:229-606. The Nanking edition is used here for more precise reference.
16--Chuan, literally to change, to turn, to transform, means “to become different because of the constructions,” according to Hsüan-tsang, p. 1, and “to arise,” according to K’uei-chi, 2:17a.
17--Addition according to K’uei-chi, 2:17b.
18--The Sāṁkhya and Vaiśeshika schools, etc., according to K’uei-chi, 3:11b. See nn.30 and 34.
19--The Nirgrantha school, etc., according to K’uei-chi, 3:12a. See n.36.
20--The Pāśupata school, etc., according to K’uei-chi, 3:12b.
21--Interpretation according to K’uei-chi, 3:18b.
22--In Buddhist philosophy, a thing is but a combination of these five aggregates or skandhas.
23--Matter, rūpa in Sanskrit and se in Chinese, refers to form, color, appearance, phenomenon, etc.
24--The Yogācāra school, according to K’uei-chi, 3:19b.
25--The three theories refuted above, according to K’uei-chi, ibid.
26--The Vātsīputrīya school, according to K’uei-chi, ibid.
27--Insertion following K’uei-chi, 4:5a.
28--This insertion according to K’uei-chi, 4:6a.
29--Dharmas of being, in contrast with dharmas of non-being, like horns of a rabbit.
30--One of the Six Systems of philosophy in India, probably the oldest. Its name means number, because it interprets reality in terms of a number of categories. It holds that primal matter (prakṛti), the ultimate cause of the world of objects, whether physical or psychical, is moved by spirit (purusha), another ultimate principle, to interact with it, thus evolving the world. The products of this evolution are successively the intellect, the ego, the five organs of perception, the five motor organs, the five generic essences of sound, touch, smell, color, and taste, and the five gross physical elements of earth, water, fire, air, and ether. These, plus the two ultimate principles of spirit and matter, constitute the 25 categories.
31--Meaning the categories of substance, quality, and action of the Vaiśeshika School described in n.34.
32--According to K’uei-chi (6:21b), these are the Vaiśeshika categories of generality and particularity.
33--According to K’uei-chi, 6:22a.
34--Another of the Six Systems. It is an atomistic philosophy stressing particularity or differentiation, which is what the name means. According to the school, the world of multiplicity is the product of the combination of material atoms of various kinds and qualities. It is described in terms of six positive categories, namely, substances (nine kinds such as earth and water), qualities (24 kinds, such as color, smell, pleasure, pain, desire, and tendency), action (five kinds), generality, particularity, and inherence. Besides these there are negative categories. At the same time the school is theistic, for in its theory the world is created and destroyed by God according to the moral deserts of individual souls, although He is not the author of the order of nature or the atoms, minds, and souls.
35--Following K’uei-chi, 6:23a.
36--A minor school, called the Shameless School, which believed that sorrow and happiness depend on the Great Lord of the Universe (Maheśvara, Great Self-Existent Heaven) and one is not responsible for one’s moral action and therefore should be shameless.
37--Literally, people who live on others by improper means.
38--For the Four Points, see above, ch. 22, comment in sec. 2.
39--Arhat or arhan, the worthy or saint, who is no longer bound in the cycle of life and death or transmigration. He is the ideal being in the Hīnayāna or Small Vehicle.
40--Variously translated as goodness, benevolence, human-hear
tedness, etc. See Appendix.
41--For a fuller discussion, see below, ch. 32, comment on sec. 22, and also Chan, “The Neo-Confucian Solution of the Problem of Evil,” Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology, 28 (1957), 773-791.
42--Shang-ts’ai yü-lu (Recorded Sayings of Hsieh Liang-tso), Cheng-i-t’ang ch’üan-shu (Complete Library of the Hall of Rectifying the Way) ed., pt. 1, p. 2b.
43--I-shu (Surviving Works), eccs, 18:2a.
44--See below, ch. 31, secs. 21, 32, 46, 76, 77; ch. 32, secs. 23, 25, 52-55; Shang-ts’ai yü-lu, pt. 1, p. 12b; pt. 2, p. 4b; pt. 3, p. la.
45--ibid., pt. 1, p. 2b.
46--In a personal letter to me in September 1957.
47--In Buddhism, there are the four realms which constitute the substances of all existence: earth, water, fire, and air; the five stages of transmigration: the hells, those of ghosts, animals, human beings, and heavenly beings; and four kinds of beings: those produced from the womb, from eggs, from moisture, and through metamorphosis. The Consciousness-Only School, because it denies the reality of the self and dharmas, regards all these as constructions of consciousness.
48--History of Chinese Philosophy, vol. 2, p. 339.
49--The consciousness of the five senses and the sense-center consciousness. K’uei-chi, 28:3a.
50--See below, first comment in sec. 7.
51--These are the six categories of mental qualities, which have fifty-one dharmas mentioned in verses 10-14. Besides there are eight dharmas of mind, eleven dharmas of matter, twenty-four dharmas not associated with mind, and six dharmas not produced by cause, making a total of one hundred dharmas in five divisions. For this school these make up all the elements of existence.
52--According to Hsüan-tsang, there are two other interpretations: (1) the latter two may be either pure or impure; (2) all mental qualities and derived mental qualities have the nature of evil and indifference to good and evil.
53--See above, ch. 20, n.38.
54--Addition according to K’uei-chi, 42:6a.
55--Literally, the scriptures that teach correct principles.
56--Shih-ti ching (Daśabhūmi sūtra or Ten-Stage Scripture), ch. 4, sec. 6, tsd, 10:533. See K’uei-chi, 42:7b.
57--Chieh shen-mi ching (Sandhinirmocana sūtra or Scripture Explaining the Deep and the Secret), ch. 2, sec. 4-5, tsd, 16:693; see K’uei-chi, 42:8a.
58--Ju Leng-chia ching (Laṅkāvatāra sūtra or Scripture about [the Buddha] Entering into Lanka), ch. 5, tsd, 16:543. See translation by Suzuki, Laṅkāvatāra sūtra, pp. 171-175. See K’uei-chi, 42:8b.
59--Shuo Wu-kou-ch’eng ching (Vimalakīrtinirdeśa sūtra or Scripture Spoken by Vimalakīrti), ch. 1, tsd, 14:559. See K’uei-chi, 42:8b.
60--A bodhisattva is one who has a strong determination to seek enlightenment and salvation for all.
61--The name of this scripture is uncertain. See de la Vallée Poussin, la siddhe de Hiuan-tsang, p. 421, n.l. K’uei-chi was not sure (42:9a).
62--According to K’uei-chi, 42:10a.
63--Hou-yen ching (Ghanavyūha sūtra or Rich and Splendid (Scripture), according to K’uei-chi, 42:11b. The title Hou-yen ching is that of the Tibetan translation. The two Chinese translations of the scripture are both entitled Ta-ch’eng mi-yen ching (Secret and Splendid Scripture of the Mahāyāna), but I cannot find the passage in them. The general idea, however, runs through the scripture, especially in sec. 8 of the first version, tsd, 16:740.
64--According to K’uei-chi, 43:7a.
65--The next Buddha, who is to come in the future to save the world.
66--For a fuller answer to these objections, see Vasubandhu’s Viṁśatikā, trans, by Hamilton, Wei Shih Er Shih Lun.
67--Interpretation according to K’uei-chi, 43:15a.
68--Chieh shen-mi ching, ch. 3, sec. 6, tsd, 16:698.
69--These interpretations are K’uei-chi’s, 43:15b.
70--These six categories are mentioned in verses 9-14, above.
71--See below, ch. 24, n.19.
72--According to K’uei-chi, 47:4a-5b, this is only one of eight interpretations of erh-ch’ü, literally “two-take.”
73--Insertion following K’uei-chi, 47:5b.
74--K’uei-chi, 51:3b.
75--Literally “seeking after.”
76--The Law realized by the Great Buddha, Śākyamuni, the sage who realized it through silence—that is, freedom from words, relative knowledge, and mistakes.
THE T’IEN-T’AI PHILOSOPHY OF PERFECT HARMONY
1--See below, n.19.
2--Hsiang in Chinese and lakshana in Sanskrit, meaning characteristics.
3--For the translation of dharma, see Appendix, comment on Fa.
4--A bodhisattva is one with strong determination to seek enlightenment and salvation for himself and others.
5--Pratyekabuddhas, who attain to their personal enlightenment by their own exertion in an age in which there is no Buddha.
6--Śravākas, who attain to their own salvation by hearing the Buddha’s preaching.
7--See Mencius, 6B:2.
8--See above, ch. 21, Introduction.
9--He was the most outstanding and the most highly revered Buddhist priest of his time. He was repeatedly invited by rulers of the various dynasties to lecture. In 583 he lectured in the palace at Nanking. Thirty-two pupils spread his doctrines in various parts of China. For his biography, see Hsü kao-seng chuan (Supplement to the Biographies of Eminent Monks), ch. 21, tsd, 50:264-268.
10--Tendai in Japan.
11--Saddharmapuṇḍarīka sūtra (Scripture of the Lotus of the Good Law). For English translation, see Bibliography.
12--Mādhyamika śāstra, ch. 6, tsd, 30:33.
13--The word men has the meanings of both gate and divisions or kinds. Thus it means different approaches, methods, variety, etc. This is the idea behind the term fa-men, or “gates of dharmas,” for dharmas are various. But fa also means model, that is, the way that can be taken as a model, referring to the path travelled by Buddhas and saints.
14--Hsü kao-seng chuan, ch. 17, tsd, 50:562-564. The second patriarch of the T’ien-t’ai School, he was particularly attracted to the Lotus Scripture.
15--See below, n. 20.
16--Chih in Chinese, literally “to stop,” or to bring the mind to a rest, the Chinese translation for the Sanskrit, śamatha, which means calmness of mind and cessation of erroneous thoughts.
17--Kuan in Chinese and vipaśyanā in Sanskrit, which means to contemplate, to examine, to look into, so as to gain insight of true Thusness.
18--Especially the ignorance of facts and principles of dharmas.
19--As indicated in the following passage, True Thusness or Suchness (tathatā in Sanskrit and chen-ju in Chinese) means truth and it-is-so. As truth, it is antithesis to illusion and falsehood, and “being so” it is eternal, unchangeable, indestructible, without character or nature, and is not produced by causes. It is the Absolute, Ultimate Reality, or True Reality, the Storehouse of the Thus-come, the Realm of Dharmas, Dharma-nature, and Perfect Reality.
20--Ta-ch’eng ch’i-hsin lun (Mahāyānaśraddhotpāda śāstra, or Treatise on the Wakening of Faith in the Mahāyāna) by Aśvaghosa (c. 100 a.d.), tsd, 32:576; cf. Suzuki, p. 57. Suzuki’s translation is of a different Chinese version from the one quoted here.
21--See below, ch. 26, n.44.
22--See above, ch. 20, n.41.
23--History of Chinese Philosophy, vol. 2, p. 363.
24--Dharmadhātu, the universe.
25--The Three Bodies of a Buddha. See below, ch. 26, n.44.
THE ONE-AND-ALL PHILOSOPHY: FA-TSANG OF THE HUA-YEN SCHOOL
1-- Avataṁsaka sūtra in Sanskrit. There are three Chinese translations: the 60-chapter version of 420 by Buddhabhadra (359-429), tsd, 9:395-788, which is the standard text; the 80-chapter version of 699 by Śikshānanda (652-710), tsd, 10:1-444; and the 40-chapter version of 798 by Prajña (date unknown), tsd, 10:661-851). The last version is but one of the 40 sections of the former two scriptur
es, and of which alone there is in existence the Sanskrit original, called the Gaṇḍavyūha (Detailed Description of Flowery Splendor). The following references are to the 60-chapter version.
2--It is called Kegon in Japanese, kegon being the Japanese pronunciation of hua-yen.
3--See above, ch. 23, Introduction.
4--For Fa-tsang’s biography and these stories, see Sung kao-seng chuan (Biographies of Eminent Monks Compiled in the Sung Period [988]), ch. 5, tsd, 50:732. His family was originally from Sogdiana in present Sinkiang and Russian Central Asia. Before he joined the Buddhist order, he had studied the Hua-yen philosophy extensively.
5--See Appendix, comment on Fa for the meaning of dharma.
6--See below, ch. 34, sec. 116.
7--History of Chinese Philosophy, vol. 2, p. 359.
8--Hsiang in Chinese and lakshaṇa in Sanskrit, meaning feature, form, appearance, etc. It is contrasted with the nature of a thing.
9--Rūpa, meaning form, appearance, phenomenon, color, etc.
10--Parikalpita.
11--Paratantra.
12--Parinishpanna.
13--See above, ch. 23, sec. 8.
14--This refers to one of the Three Vehicles in Buddhism, namely, the Vehicle of Buddha’s Direct Disciples (Śrāvaka), or Hīnayāna disciples who attain their own salvation by hearing the Buddha’s teachings; the Vehicle of the Self-enlightened Ones (Pratyekabuddha), who attain to their personal enlightenment by their own exertion; and the Vehicle of Bodhisattvas, who are strongly determined to achieve enlightenment for all people.
15--For the idea of “gates,” see above, ch. 24, n.13. The idea behind the theory of the Ten Mysterious Gates originated with Tu-shun, but it was his pupil Chih-yen (602-668) who formulated it. This is called the old Ten Mysterious Gates. Fa-tsang adopted it and changed its order and supplied his own contents. This is called the new Ten Mysterious Gates. Actually the orders in his two pertinent works are somewhat different. Here he explains them in terms of the gold and lion, following the order in one of these two works but again changing the titles of nos. 2 and 10. The purport of all the versions is practically the same.
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