up at one end and shaken. The dawn grasps the earth by its "extremity or hem"
(Hebrew, kanap; see Numbers 15:38 and 1 Samuel 15:27) and shakes the wicked
out of it. This is immediately followed in the same chapter of job by the
depiction of the earth as a piece of clay (presumably a clay tablet, something flat
and stationary) whose surface is changed by the impression of a seal (the sun)
pressed or rolled across it, after which, the earth's "features stand out like those
of a garment." 52 Those two verses in Job employ at least two flat metaphors for
the earth in a row: (1) grabbing the "ends of the earth" like a blanket or garment
to shake out, (2) a [flat] clay tablet, and end with the echo of a third flat
metaphor since the author returns to comparing the earth to a "garment." Neither
does job refrain from implying the earth's flatness in other passages. For
instance, job 11:9, "[God's] measure is longer than the earth, and broader than
the sea" and Job 38:5, "Who stretched the line on [the earth]?" and Job 38:4, 6,
in which God asks Job, "Where were you when I laid the foundation of the
earth? ... On what were its bases sunk? Or who laid its cornerstone?"
The Bible not only speaks of the "the ends of the earth," but also mentions
"the ends of heaven" (compare "heaven's edge" in Mesopotamian cosmology). In
Psalm 19:1-6 we find: "The heavens declare the glory of God; and the firmament
shows his handiwork.... In them he set a tabernacle for the sun.... [The sun's]
going forth is from the end of the heaven, and his circuit unto the ends of it"
(KJV). The phrase "from the one side of heaven unto the other" also occurs in
Deuteronomy 4:32. And in Deuteronomy 30:3-4 (NJB) Yahweh says, "Should
you [my people] have been banished to the very sky's end [the outmost parts of
heaven], Yahweh your God will gather you again even from there, will come
there to reclaim you." The Hebrew word translated as "outmost" is gatseh, which
has the meaning of "end" or "extremity," and is the same Hebrew word used in
the phrase "end of the earth" in most occurrences. The NT (Matthew 24:31)
echoes the same phrase, "His angels ... shall gather together his elect from the
four winds, from one end of heaven to the other." So the "ends of heaven"
parallel the "ends of the earth" in the Bible just as they did in ancient
Mesopotamian cosmology.
Flat-earth beliefs remained popular between the time of the last book of the
OT and the first book of the NT, also called the intertestamental period. One
book composed during that period says, "I went to the ends of the earth.... and ...
I saw the ends of the earth whereon the heaven rests" (The Book of Enoch 33:1-
2).53
The book of Daniel, a late addition to the OT (and a book that scholars argue
was probably produced during the intertestamental period like the Book of
Enoch), provides a further example of how biblical authors took for granted the
flatness of the earth. In Daniel 4:10-11, Nebuchadnezzar has a dream and asks
Daniel to interpret it: "I saw, and behold, a tree in the midst of the earth, and the
height thereof was great. The tree grew, and was strong, and the height thereof
reached unto heaven, and the sight thereof to the end of all the earth." If a tree's
height was indeed so "great" that it "reached unto heaven" then it might very
well be seen to the "ends of the earth" on a flat earth. But the same does not
apply to a sphere. Another verse parallels the one in Daniel, and is found in the
NT, where Jesus is taken by the devil to the top of a "very high" mountain and
there shown "all the kingdoms of the world (literally, `cosmos')" (Matthew 4:8).
Both cases speak of something "very high" or of "great height that reaches unto
heaven," which allows the entire world to see it (or allows the whole world to be
seen from it), which is true on a flat earth, but not on a spherical one.
What supported the flat earth securely in the midst of primordial waters? The
ancients could only guess, and they relied heavily upon a belief that the earth
was kept safe and secure due to the unsearchable wisdom and magical might of
the god(s). For instance, an Egyptian drawing of the earth disc found in Othmar
Keel's Symbolism of the Biblical World, shows a deity with long arms that
extend from one end of the earth disc to the other holding it in place from below.
There is also an Egyptian story about the creator god Kephra whose first act of
conquering primordial disarray was to conceive a secure place on which to
stand. One Babylonian story has Marduk establish the earth as a floating reed
mat above primeval waters. The authors of the Bible were equally in the dark
when it came to knowing how the earth was established/ fixed or what lay
beneath it. The prophet Jeremiah exclaims in effect that "the foundations of the
earth can [never] be searched out below," for it is more likely that they will be
searched out than that God will cast off Israel, which is another way of saying,
"never" (31:37). There are also plenty of Bible passages about how Yahweh
established, fixed, founded, and continuously preserves the world via his
wisdom and might (Psalm 102:25, Proverbs 3:19, Jeremiah 51:15). Consider
Isaiah 48:13, "Mine hand also hath laid the foundation of the earth, and my right
hand hath spanned the heavens: when I call unto them, they stand up together."
Or Isaiah 44:24, "[He] stretched out the heavens and spread out the earth."
Sometimes a verse will say that God established or founded the earth "upon the
seas, waters, rivers, deeps" (Psalm 24:2). In all such cases, the ancients
explained the earth's support by handing out accolades to their respective god(s)'
miraculous, mysterious might.
Sometimes "pillars" were suggested as supports for the earth, as in 1 Samuel
2:8, "... for the pillars of the earth are the Lord's, and he hath set the world upon
them." Job 9:6 states: "[God] shaketh the earth out of her place [earthquake], and
the pillars thereof tremble." The Hebrew word translated as "pillars" here is
'ammud, which has the meaning of "pillar" or "column." Also see Job 38:4-6,
"Where were you when I laid the earth's foundations? Tell me, since you are so
well-informed! ... What supports its pillars at their bases? Who laid its
cornerstone?" (NJB) and Psalm 75:3, "The earth and all the inhabitants thereof
are dissolved: I bear up the pillars of it."
Regardless of how the biblical earth is held in place;54 verses throughout the
Bible agree that the earth is immovable, moving only in the case of earthquakes-
again, something only God can produce. Psalm 93:1 states, "the world also is
established [or fixed] that it cannot be moved." Psalm 96:10 makes a similar
statement: "the world also shall be established that it shall not be moved."
Another such statement is found in 1 Chronicles 16:30: "the world also shall be
stable, that it be not moved." And Psalm 104:5 states "[God] laid the foundations
of the earth, that it should not be removed for ever."
The Bible confirms this depiction by stating that everything moves but the
earth. Take Ecclesiastes 1:5: "The sun rises and the sun sets, and hurries back to
where it vises" (NIV) [emphasis added]. Compare P
salm 19:4-6, "In [the
heavens] He [God] has placed a tent for the sun, which is as a bridegroom
coming out of his chamber; it rejoices like a strong man to run its course, its
rising from one end of the heavens, and its circuit to the other end of them."
Such a depiction is reminiscent of ancient Mesopotamian beliefs. In The Sharash
Hymn, the Sun-god is said to "continuously cross the heavens, daily... pass over
the vast earth," and in a different text the sun is described as moving, "as far as
the edge of heaven, as far as the edge of earth, from the mountain of sunrise to
the mountain of sunset.""
Bible verses that further illustrate their authors' belief in the move ment of the
sun include job 9:7, "He [God] can command the sun not to rise." That God
would direct his command at the sun rather than the earth implies a belief in a
stationary earth. Likewise, Joshua directed his commands at both the sun and
moon, even commanding the sun to stand still "over Gibeon," and the moon
"over the valley of Aijalon" (Joshua 10:12).
The Bible also teaches that stars "course" through the sky each night (Judges
5:20), and God "brings them out one by one" and "because of His great power
not one of them is missing" (Isaiah 40:26). Compare Enuma Elish VII:130,
which states, "He [Marduk] shall maintain the motions of the stars of heaven." In
addition, job 38:31-33 (NASB) states that constellations are "led forth" by God,
as when God asks Job rhetorically, "Can you lead forth a constellation in its
season, And guide the Bear with her satellites? Do you know the ordinances of
the heavens, Or fix their rule over the earth?"
But anyone with knowledge of astronomy knows that the reverse is true of all
the biblical truths above. The sun does not "hurry back to where it rises," the
earth spins. Commanding "the sun" not to move, makes as little sense as
someone in a moving car commanding the scenery not to move. The stars do not
have "courses," they only appearto move in a large circle round the pole star
each night due to the earth's rotation. God does not "bring the stars out one by
one by His great power," there is no "great power" involved, it is the diminishing
intensity of the sun's rays reflecting off the atmosphere that "brings out the
stars." (Though to St. Philastrius in the fourth century CE the words of Scripture
were irrefutable divine teachings, including those about God bringing out the
stars from his treasure-house and hanging them in the sky every evening, to deny
which was heresy and "false to the Catholic faith.") Neither do "none of the stars
go missing" when God "by His great power brings them out" because sometimes
stars explode into dust.56 Neither does God "lead forth," and "guide"
constellations, they only appear to twirl around nightly (and dip high, low, or
vanish for months beneath the horizon) due to the earth's rotation and its
revolution around the Sun.
Some Christians and conservative Jews continue to defend geocentrism,
asking their brethren, "Does the Bible depict God `commanding,' `leading forth,'
and `stopping' things that don't really move?" They add that "God's might is
evidenced in His ability to shake an otherwise immovable earth (Job 9:6; 2
Samuel 22:8; Joel 2:10; Isaiah 13:13; Revelation 6:12-13), and in His ability to
lead forth and guide constellations, and direct His command at the sun to make it
stop moving. Such actions are either demonstrations of God's might, or, mighty
deceptive language for God to have inspired." Therefore, they say, "If you take
the Bible at its word you ought to be a geocentrist!" Ironically, the same point is
made by creationists, "If you take the Bible at its word you ought to be a
creationist!" But, as we have seen in this chapter, taking the Bible at its word
also means thinking in terms of a flat earth.
Another aspect of the biblical cosmos to consider is that God's abode in
heaven was not imagined to lay light-years away. The author of Psalm 103:11-12
drew a parallel between "as high as heaven is above the earth" and the distance
"from the east to west" on the earth. And the author of Psalm 139:8-9 drew a
parallel between the distance from heaven to Sheol (beneath the earth) and the
distance from the light of dawn to the remotest part of the sea. So in the mind of
the psalmists, distances from one part of the earth to another part of the earth
paralleled the distance to heaven above.
We read in the Tower of Babel story that the Lord "came down [from heaven]
to see the city and the tower that the men were building.... the tower whose top
may reach unto heaven" (Genesis 11:4-5-and see Psalm 144:5 and 2 Samuel
22:10 for added examples of Yahweh "coming down from heaven"). After taking
a peek at what the builders were doing, the Lord felt the need to scatter them
over the face of the earth, perhaps because, "The heavens are the heavens of the
Lord's, but the earth He has given to man" (Psalm 115:16). The Lord also
"stretches out the heavens like a tent and lays the beams of his upper chambers
on their waters. He makes the clouds his chariot and rides on the wings of the
wind" (Psalm 104:2-3). In Isaiah 14:12-17 the king of Babylon is depicted as a
Canaanite deity, the "Morning Star, son of Dawn," and declares, "I will ascend to
heaven; I will raise my throne above the stars of God, and I will sit on the mount
of assembly in the recesses of the north. I will ascend above the heights of the
clouds; I will make myself like the Most High" (Isaiah 14:13-14, NASB). The
Lord "treads upon the high places of the earth" (Amos 4:13). Highflying birds
are thought to fly across the face of the firmament (Genesis 1:20). Angels
(cherubim and seraphim) are depicted with bird-like wings. People like Elijah
and Jesus ascend from the earth to heaven (2 Kings 2:11; Acts 1:19, 7:56).
Stories of ascents and descents from heaven appear throughout the Bible
(Genesis 28:12; Proverbs 30:4; Luke 2:15; John 1:51; Acts 10:11; 1
Thessalonians 4:16, 17). "Manna," a type of food, falls from heaven (Exodus 16,
Numbers 11, Deuteronomy 8). Fire and lightning also fall from heaven, parceled
out at the Lord's discretion (on par with other ancient deities). Even a city is
depicted as descending from heaven to earth (Revelation 3:12, 21:2).57 If the
ancients did not believe heaven was so near, and heavenly beings so attentive
and active, they wouldn't have been as concerned with appeasing them or
seeking their blessings-yet these were universal concerns in the ancient Near
East.
The god(s) were perched on a celestial balcony, so to speak, gazing at the
drama below, handing out blessings and curses to individuals and nations alike;
at least that's what the people believed who built the temples, founded the
priesthoods, invented holy rituals, and performed burnt offerings (so the smoke
would ascend to heaven as a "soothing aroma"-see Genesis 8:21; Exodus 29:18,
25; Leviticus 3:16, 6:21 and Numbers 15:3, 10). Moreover, the Israelites shared
with their neighbors the eastward orientation of their tabernacle and temple, the
placement of important cultic objects within them, the designation of areas of
increasing ho
liness, rules for access to the Holy Place and Holy of Holies, as
well as practices like circumcision and sacrificial offerings.-58 Like other
nations, they feared the anger of their god and subsequent punishment if
attention was denied him. The duty of kings and priests was to ensure such
attention was maintained, for the safety and security of the nation.
Do we feel the coziness or the peculiar dread of such a cosmos anymore, one
in which god(s) live overhead? Such feelings have diminished greatly since the
invention of the telescope that allowed humans to peer more deeply into the
"heavens of the Lord." Its invention signaled the beginning of the end of belief in
both a stationary earth and in a starry firmament with waters above it-beliefs
held by Christians for fifteen hundred years.-9
Today, even conservative Christians, such as John Walton, professor of Old
Testament at Wheaton College, find that they cannot deny the relevance of
studying ancient cosmologies when it comes to understanding Genesis 1:
The Israelites [like the nations around them] did not know that stars were
suns; they did not know that the earth was spherical and moving through
space; they did not know that the sun was much further away than the
moon, or even further than the clouds or high-flying birds. They believed
that the sky was material (not vaporous), solid enough to support the
residence of the deity as well as hold back waters.60
But Walton's admission is just the tip of the iceberg. What about the news that
Genesis 1 is probably not the earliest Mesopotamian creation story, nor even the
earliest Hebrew creation story? What about the news that Hebrew conceptions of
their cosmos, their god, and their religious rituals all owe a great deal to their
cultural milieu? What about the fact that flat-earth themes run through the entire
Bible (i.e., the creation of the firmament, God "coming down" to see the Tower
of Babel, Elijah's ascension into heaven, Jesus' ascension, and the New
Jerusalem descending from heaven)? Today the first eleven chapters of Genesis
are commonly conceded to be mythological tales of "primeval history"
composed by people who deemed their founding myths, high god(s), and places
of worship "central."
In light of the preponderance of evidence presented here, it's clear the Bible is
a product of the prescientific period in which it originated. Furthermore, if there
are any "words of God" in the Bible it appears that human beings are the ones
picking and choosing among them as to which those might be, which to
emphasize, which to deemphasize, which to praise, which to question, and how
to interpret them.
Lastly, the cosmos that telescopes and space probes have revealed is not
nearly as cozy a place as the ancient one we have examined, though it does
feature a peculiar dread all its own, namely that our planet is a tiny life raft
bobbing in space with far less fortunate rafts bobbing over to our left and right.
Neither does our world appear to be inhabited by heavenly beings above and
shades in Sheol below. Instead we live on the thin outer layer of our planet's
shifting surface. Moving just five miles beyond that layer up or down we would
die from lack of oxygen or boil from the heat. And our world remains vulnerable
to solar flares, collisions with other objects, nearby novas, or to any star sailing
close enough to disrupt planetary orbits. So any number of probable catastrophes
from space could cripple or annihilate human civilization. And none of these
inherent dangers seem to have anything to do with whether or not gods are
appeased. Neither does our cosmos show any evidence that dire events on Earth
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