by Peter Joyce
The special relationship between the two countries has not consistently led each to embrace a common political approach to world problems. The military invasion of Egypt in 1956 by British and French forces in response to the nationalization of the British-owned Suez Canal provoked American opposition and strained the relationships between the USA and UK. The Argentinian invasion of the Falkland Islands in 1982 (which resulted in a British task force being dispatched to liberate them) placed America in a difficult position which made it impossible for President Reagan to immediately endorse the British position. The administration of President George W. Bush also proved unresponsive to pressure by the British prime minister, Tony Blair, to sign up to the Kyoto Protocol on the emission of greenhouse gases. The emergence of the EU has also posed the dilemma as to whether the future direction of British foreign policy should be orientated towards its European neighbours rather than America (or perhaps suggested that Britain can act as a bridge between the EU and USA).
However, terrorist attacks in New York and Washington on 11 September 2001 revived the USA–UK special relationship. Following these attacks, Tony Blair visited America and the President informed Congress that ‘America has no truer friend than Great Britain’. Subsequently, Blair devoted a considerable amount of effort to secure international support for military action to be taken against Iraq. British troops played a significant role in the invasion of that country in 2003 and in the subsequent policing of it and have also played an active role in Afghanistan. Co-operation has also been evidenced in the 2003 USA–UK Extradition Treaty, which was designed to speed up the extradition of terrorist suspects. However, critics of the special relationship assert that British support for American foreign policy is militarily insignificant, that its main purpose is to provide US actions with a degree of international legitimacy and that it restricts the development of new UK alliances.
Question
For what reasons have the UK and USA historically enjoyed a ‘special relationship’? Is this relationship a meaningful one in the twenty-first century?
International terrorism
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Insight
Terrorism is a key issue affecting the Western world in the twenty-first century and combating it has posed dilemmas for nations with liberal democratic political systems which need to balance security with liberty.
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Terrorism is a difficult term to define precisely, but it entails the use – or threat to use – violence to further a political objective, conducted by an organized group. Those who carry out acts of violence do not seek to confront the state directly (indeed they are typically too weak to do so) but, alternatively, to wear it down by waging a war of attrition against it. This may entail the use of tactics that eliminate its key personnel (such as politicians or judges) or intimidate ordinary members of the general public in order to attain their ends. The operations of terrorists were excellently summarized by Bill Clinton in 2001 when he informed a UK audience in the wake of the 11 September attacks in the USA that ‘the purpose of terrorism is not military victory, it is to terrorize, to change your behaviour if you’re the victim by making you afraid of today, afraid of tomorrow and in diverse societies … afraid of each other’. The violence which terrorists use may be of a spectacular nature, designed to secure publicity for their cause.
Developments associated with globalization and technological developments affecting means of communication have helped to promote terrorism on the international stage. Thus the grievances of citizens in one country may result in acts of violence in another (perhaps carried out by a third party), especially when the policies pursued by a government or interests with which it is associated are deemed responsible for these problems. This was graphically demonstrated in America on 11 September 2001, when terrorist attacks directed at New York’s World Trade Center and the Pentagon Building in Washington resulted in the deaths of thousands of people who just happened to be in the wrong place at the wrong time. These attacks were blamed on Muslim extremists who were seeking to change the pro-American direction of the foreign policy of Western governments towards the Muslim world by highlighting the plight of Palestinian Arabs arising from American policy, especially its support for Israel’s policy towards these people. Attacks motivated by this concern subsequently occurred elsewhere, including Madrid in 2004 and London in 2005.
Terrorism is hard to counter. The use of organization such as cell structures make it difficult for states to monitor these organizations and the changing nature of terrorist tactics (for example, suicide bombers, attacks on transport infrastructure) make counter-terrorist operations difficult. Terrorist activities pose particular problems for liberal democracies since those who intend to use violence to further their aims are able to take advantage of the freedoms that are found in such systems of government (such as the freedoms of association, speech and movement) to recruit members and plan their operations. In order to counter their activities it is essential for liberal democracies to strike the correct balance between liberty and security.
Terrorist activities have prompted a number of liberal democracies to amend their laws. The main legislation in the United Kingdom includes the 2000 Terrorism Act and the 2001 Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act. In the USA it comprised the 2001 Patriot Act that was made permanent by the 2005 USA Patriot Improvement and Reauthorization Act. However, legislation which is designed to restrict terrorism tends to reduce civil and political liberties. A particular problem is that legislation which is designed to outlaw political violence fails to draw an adequate distinction between direct action and terrorism and effectively enables the state to prohibit the activities of almost any group which uses some form of physical activity to further its cause.
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THINGS TO REMEMBER
The study of the inter-relationships between nation states is referred to as international relations.
Sovereignty indicates the ability of a nation state to exercise total control over its internal and external affairs.
The desire to achieve sovereignty is often underpinned by beliefs that factors including culture, language and a common ethnic identity justify self-rule.
In the twenty-first century, nation states rarely possess total freedom of action concerning the regulation of their own affairs but need to consider external constraints on their actions.
Developments that include the global economy, international trade and supranational governmental institutions have eroded important aspects of the sovereignty once possessed by nation states.
The European Union (EU) is an example of a supranational body which has exerted a considerable degree of control over the actions of a number of European states since the EEC was formed in 1957.
A range of bodies are responsible for EU policy making, most notably the Commission, the Council of Ministers, the European Council and the European Parliament.
Despite the UK’s involvement with the EU, the special relationship with the USA retains an important place in the UK’s foreign policy agenda.
Terrorism is an important development in the twenty-first century which requires international co-operation as well as individual responses by nation states.
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Taking it further
Further reading (general)
This book has attempted to provide you with some basic information concerning the operations of liberal democratic political systems in the first world. You are now in a position to build on your knowledge. The following books will help you to do this.
Axford, B., Browning, G., Huggins, R., Rosamund, B. and Turner, J. Politics: An Introduction, 2nd edition 2002, London: Routledge
Ball, A., and Peters, B.G. Modern Politics and Government, 7th edition, 2005, Basingstoke: Macmillan/Palgrave. Well-established text concerned with the study of politics in a wide range of countries.
Bell, D. French Politics Today, 2nd edition, 2002, Manchester: Manchester University Press
Budge, I., Crewe, I., McKay, D. and Newton, K. The New British Politics, 4th edition, 2007, Harlow: Longman
Fisher, J., Denver, D. and Benyon, J. Central Debates in British Politics, 2002, Harlow: Longman
Garnett, M. and Lynch, P. Exploring British Politics, 2nd edition, 2009, Harlow: Longman
Jones, B., Kavanagh, D., Moran, M. and Norton, P. Politics UK, 6th edition, 2006, Harlow: Longman
Joyce, P. Politico’s Guide to UK General Elections 1832–2010, 2011, London: Methuen
Kavanagh, D. British Politics, Continuities and Change, 4th revised edition, 2000, Oxford: Oxford University Press
McKay, D. American Politics and Society, 7th edition, 2009, Oxford: WileyBlackwell
McKay, D., Houghton, D. and Wroe, A. Controversies in American Politics and Society, 2002, Oxford: Blackwell
Moran, M. Politics and Government in the UK, 2005, Basingstoke: Macmillan/Palgrave
Thomas, C.S. Political Parties and Interest Groups: Shaping Democratic Governance, 2001, Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers
Thomas, C.S. (Editor), Research Guide to US and International Interest Groups, 2004, Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers
Further reading (for each chapter)
Chapter 1
This chapter provided an introduction to the study of politics and referred to some key issues which underpin this subject. A key requirement for those of us who study politics is the need to keep abreast of current affairs. This is most easily done by reading a ‘quality’ newspaper. In the United Kingdom these include the Independent, the Guardian, the Daily Telegraph, the Times and (on Sundays) the Observer. Contemporary events are also catered for in magazines such as the Economist.
In addition there are also specialist journals which deal with contemporary political issues. In the United Kingdom the most useful introductory journal is Talking Politics. More specialized knowledge can be obtained from Parliamentary Affairs, Political Studies and The British Journal of Political Science.
The internet is a crucial tool which enables us to keep abreast of contemporary issues. In the UK the Guardian newspaper’s website (www.guardian.co.uk/politics) provides an up-to-date summary of contemporary political issues.
Chapter 2
This chapter referred to a number of common features affecting liberal democratic states. These general issues can be supplemented by more detailed reading which includes:
Holden, B. Understanding Liberal Democracy, 2nd edition, 1993, New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf
Steiner, J. European Democracies, 5th edition, 2006, Harlow: Longman
It is also important to appreciate that the political arrangements in liberal democratic states are not set in stone and that changes are frequently made. You can keep abreast of current developments by using the internet: in the United Kingdom information on contemporary issues can be obtained from the Government Information Service whose website is www.open.gov.uk. Additionally, the Centre for Women and Democracy (www.cfwd.org.uk) contains updated material on women’s involvement in politics.
Chapter 3
This chapter drew our attention to the importance of political ideas. These provide politicians with a vision of the society which they wish to create should they control the government of a country. There are numerous books which deal with political ideas, and a particularly good account is provided by:
Heywood, A. Political Ideologies: An Introduction, 4th revised edition, 2007, Basingstoke: Macmillan/Palgrave
Heywood, A. Political Theories: An Introduction, 3rd edition, 2004, Basingstoke: Macmillan/Palgrave
Leach, R. Political Ideology in Britain, 2nd edition, 2009, Basingstoke: Macmillan/Palgrave
Chapter 4
This chapter drew attention to the wide variety of ways in which citizens in liberal democracies elect our political leaders. A detailed discussion of different electoral systems is to be found in:
Dummett, M. Principles of Electoral Reform, 1997, Oxford: Oxford University Press
Farrell, D. Comparing Electoral Systems, 1997, Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall/Harvester Wheatsheaf
In the United Kingdom, the main organizations seeking electoral reform are the Hansard Society and the Electoral Reform Society. These publish regular discussion papers of issues related to reform. Further information from the Hansard Society may be obtained from 40–43 Chancery Lane, London WC2A 1JA. The web address is www.hansard-society.org.uk. The Electoral Reform Society is based at 6 Chancel Street, London SE1 0UU and its web address is www.electoral-reform.org.uk.
Chapter 5
This chapter discussed a number of matters in connection with the development of political parties and party systems. A more detailed account of the concerns raised in this chapter is found in:
Ingle, S. The British Party System: An Introduction, 4th edition, 2007, London: Routledge
Ware, A. Political Parties and Party Systems, 1996, Oxford: Oxford University Press
Additionally, the Journal of Party Politics provides up-to-date information on contemporary issues affecting political parties throughout the world.
We may also contact the political parties directly to gain information of this nature. In the UK the main political parties can be contacted as follows:
Labour Party, 39 Victoria Street, London SW1H 0HA (www.labour.org.uk)
Conservative Party, 25 Victoria Street, London SW1H 0DL (www.conservatives.com)
Liberal Democrats, 4 Cowley Street, London SW1H 3NB (www.libdems.org.uk)
Scottish National Party, 107 McDonald Road, Edinburgh EH7 4NW, Scotland (www.snp.org)
Plaid Cymru, Ty Gwynfor, 18 Park Grove, Cardiff CF10 3BN, Wales (www.plaidcymru.org)
Chapter 6
This chapter highlighted the important role performed by pressure groups influencing the content of public policy. There are many books which provide informative accounts of the operations of these bodies. These include.
Coxall, B. Pressure Groups in British Politics, 2001, Harlow: Longman
Grant, W. Pressure Groups and British Politics, 2000, Basingstoke: Macmillan/Palgrave
Nownes, A. Pressure and Power – Organized Interests in American Politics, 2001, Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin
Chapter 7
This chapter considered the diversity of the media and the vital role they perform in the operations of contemporary liberal democratic systems of government. More detailed discussion of matters raised in this chapter is provided in:
Street, J. Mass Media, Politics and Democracy, 2001, Basingstoke: Macmillan/Palgrave
Franklin, B. Packaging Politics: Political Communications in British Media Democracy, 2nd revised edition, 2004, London: Bloomsbury Academic
Jones, N. Soundbites and Spin Doctors: How Politicians Manipulate the Media – and Vice Versa, 1995, London: Cassell
Lloyd, J. What the Media are doing to our Politics, 2004, London: Constable
Chapter 8
This chapter examined the importance of constitutions in providing a kind of organizational chart concerning the operations of a country’s system of government.
Particular attention has been devoted to the process of constitutional reform in the United Kingdom since the 1997 general election, in particular concerning the devolution of government and human rights. An interesting account of a wide range of constitutional reforms enacted since 1997 is provided by:
Dorey, P. The Labour Party and Constitutional Reform, 2008, Basingstoke: Palgrave/Macmillan
Further information concerning the operations of the devolved governments can be found at:
Northern Ireland Assembly, Parliament Buildings, Stormont, Belfast BT4 3XX, Northern Ireland (www.niassembly.gov.uk)
Scottish Parliament, George IV Bridge, Edinburgh EH99 1SP, Scotland (www.scottish.parliament.uk)
National Assembly of Wales, Cardiff Bay, Cardiff CF99 1NA (www.wales.gov.uk)
Coverage of the debates of these bodies is also provided by the BBC’s Parliamentary Channel.
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This chapter has argued that human rights are universal in application. Various pressure groups seek to uncover violations of these rights across the world. A particularly influential organization is Amnesty International which regularly publishes reports into human rights issues. It can be located at 99–119 Rosebery Avenue, London EC1R 4RE, and its web address is www.amnesty.org.uk.
Chapter 9
This chapter concentrated on those who implement decisions, and has drawn particular attention to the American system of presidential government and the British tradition of cabinet government. More detailed studies of the workings of the executive branches of government can be found in:
Allen, G. The Last Prime Minister – Being Honest About the UK Presidency, 2nd edition, 2003, London: Imprint Academic
