by Temel Aksoy
Connection The connection metaphor gets its power from the feeling of belonging. People establish physical, social, emotional and spiritual connections. The family, society, country, circle and business community, and the sports teams that people support, are all connections.
Telecommunications brands make extensive use of the connection metaphor. Today, almost everyone feels like their connection to life has been severed if their cell phone doesn’t have a signal or they lose their Internet connection.
The sectors that utilize the connection metaphor most frequently are entertainment venues, such as restaurants, cafes, cinemas and concerts. People do not go to a restaurant just to dine, but also to see and to be seen so that they can establish connection with others.
Resource Resources are essential for survival. For a car, a resource could be gasoline or oil. For humans, food and water are necessary for survival. The environment is a resource, as are information and money. The saying “kill it at the root” is based on the resource metaphor; to kill a problem at the root is to deny it the resources it needs to get worse.
The resource metaphor is one used in many sectors, including food, beverages and banking.
Control Control is a multifaceted metaphor. On the one hand, it’s related to the motivation to manage one’s life. No one wants to lose control, because losing control results in feelings of helplessness and desperation. On the other hand, control can signify the desire to wield power over others. The ability to exercise control can be derived from occupying a position of authority or possessing money or knowledge. An inspirational leader can also exercise control over people, as can people with material or spiritual influence.
Sectors based on control include health care (control of one’s body), banking and insurance (control of money or security) and automobile tires (control of the car and road).
These seven metaphors aren’t the only metaphors through which we perceive and describe our experiences. All of us use countless metaphors in our daily lives. Every marketer must understand the products in their field and which metaphors communicate most effectively with their consumers, and then use those metaphors in their brand communications. Skilled advertisers appeal to people with metaphors.
DECISION-MAKING
11.
Fast and Slow Thinking
Metaphors help people to form feelings and memories of brands. However, to change consumer behavior and trigger purchases, marketers must also understand how the human brain handles decision-making.
Nobel Prize winner Daniel Kahneman and experimental psychologist Amos Tversky spent decades studying how people make decisions. Their work demonstrated that there are two different systems in the human brain, which they named System 1 and System 2.
People use System 1 to make decisions without thinking, based on intuition. System 1 manages our critical functions and protects us from enemies and dangers. All of the instincts we inherited from our forefathers belong to System 1. The reflexes that we exhibit in a moment of danger come from System 1.
People make most of their decisions based on intuition—in other words, using System 1. They simplify their lives by using System 1, but they’re not even aware that System 1 is controlling their behavior.
System 2, on the other hand, is the system that carefully examines the data, makes calculations and operates much more slowly. When a person is solving a problem or comparing the characteristics of two cameras, they’re thinking with System 2. Everyone engaged in scientific study is thinking with System 2.
System 2 consumes a lot of energy and tires people out. Often, people are exhausted after making difficult decisions or after solving certain problems because of the intense energy required to operate System 2. Not surprisingly, making a living through mental effort can be exhausting because doing so relies heavily on System 2.
The same is true of learning to drive. People who drive a car for the first time have to think about everything they do (System 2). This is why it’s so difficult for beginning drivers to speak to their passengers or think about something else while driving. They’re focusing all of their attention on the vehicle and traffic. However, people who learn to drive eventually transfer the task of driving to their intuition (System 1) and begin to drive without thinking at all. This tendency is one we see in every area of life, not just in driving. People manage their lives based on the “principle of least effort”—so every decision we once made by thinking with System 2 will eventually be transferred to System 1.
When people are performing tasks taken over by System 1, they’re busy thinking about other things. Generally, people automatically do most of the tasks they do on a regular basis, and they think about other things while doing them. People who entrust themselves to System 1 get up in the morning, take a shower, get dressed, drive to work, do their job, eat and shop without even thinking about it. They use System 2 only rarely because the human mind has been programmed to do as much as possible with System 1, using System 2 only if absolutely necessary.
With the piecemeal information it has available, System 1 fills in the gaps in knowledge and makes decisions using shortcuts (heuristics) to reach a conclusion. Over time, System 1 memorizes its modus operandi and is able to make decisions almost without “thinking” at all. This trait of the human mind gives it the advantages of amazing speed and skill, but this system has weaknesses. It can also cause people to make mistakes. The decisions that people make based on intuition may not always be right. For example, everyone is capable of making cruel judgments about people they don’t even know based on a mere crumb of information. Likewise, it’s possible for people to misunderstand an issue and make poor decisions. Intuition is both a strength and a weakness.
“Fast,” intuitive thinking (System 1) can’t handle every situation. Neither can “slow,” deliberate, logical thinking (System 2) get us through our days efficiently. These two systems, fast and slow thinking, have a cooperative relationship in the human mind. In many situations, System 2 is affected by System 1. People are often unaware that they’ve made decisions with System 1 and assume they made them with System 2. System 1 is the real boss in the human brain.
How this works in marketing:
Consumers buy a brand out of habit, which means that their decision was made automatically, with System 1. Trying to convince a consumer (customer) who is in the habit of buying the competitor’s brand—in other words, trying to make him think with System 2—is difficult, and most of the time it’s unsuccessful. For the customer, continuing to think with System 1 is faster and easier. Therefore, rational advertisements don’t usually work to get them to change. To convince people and change their behaviors, advertisers must use methods that are more effective than rational arguments, such as brand memory, timing and storytelling (details in chapters 69, 70 and 71).
Marketing in politics has similar challenges. People’s political preferences are formed with System 1. When voters are choosing political parties, their emotions, intuitions and feeling of belonging exert a more powerful influence than reason. When a leader achieves compathy (shared feelings) with voters, it’s practically impossible for the leader of an opposition party to sever this emotional bond with logic.
12.
The Primal Brain Directs Human Behavior
Human behavior is complex. To understand people, marketers need a thorough familiarity with how the human mind works.
In addition to having two systems for decision-making, the human brain consists of three layers. From top to bottom, scientists call these layers the “new brain,” “middle brain” and “primal brain.”
Humans reason with the new brain (prefrontal cortex).
The middle brain (limbic system) directs the world of human emotion.
The primal brain manages basic human needs, such as eating, reproduction and protecting against danger.
The System 1 de
scribed by Kahneman resides in both the primal brain and middle brain, while System 2 is located in the new brain. It’s very difficult for a person to make a decision on an issue that hasn’t passed the primal brain’s filter. Therefore, the way to influence people is to appeal to the primal brain no matter what the issue is.
Let us look at this in greater detail. Neuromarketing expert Patrick Renvoise says that there are six keys to influencing the primal brain:
The primal brain is self-centered. The primal brain is uninterested in things that don’t benefit it. If a marketing message is unrelated to its interests (food, sex, danger, sleep, etc.), it will disregard it. Fear, fun, pleasure, enjoyment, self-interest and opportunity are thus very effective in communication because they appeal to these primal needs.
The primal brain is sensitive to contradictions. The primal brain looks for a standard when it’s making decisions. Therefore, contradictions and contrast are the criteria that the primal brain understands best. Contrasts such as first/later, risky/safe, quick/slow, expensive/cheap help the primal brain make decisions. Unbiased statements, generalizations, scientific explanations, findings and propositions are concepts the primal brain doesn’t understand.
The primal brain understands what is concrete. The primal brain doesn’t comprehend the abstract. Logic and the words that form the raw materials of reason are valuable for the top-level brain but are meaningless to the primal brain. The primal brain can’t decipher abstract messages because it’s incapable of processing words. One of the greatest mistakes made by communicators is their appeal to the top-level brain. Logical truths don’t have the anticipated effect on people.
The primal brain is sensitive to beginnings and endings. The primal brain doesn’t remain awake throughout the process of listening. It’s programmed to conserve its energy. It’s quickly distracted. Communication that doesn’t clearly state the message from the beginning and repeat it at the end won’t be very effective. (Of course, this method doesn’t apply to storytelling narrative.)
The primal brain is visual. The primal brain instantly recognizes a danger or opportunity and responds accordingly. It takes a lot longer for the top-level brain to understand what it sees. This is why expert marketers say, “Don’t describe it, show it!” People make faster, more intuitive decisions when they can see a product, rather than reading or hearing about it.
The primal brain is emotional. The primal brain is where our most intense emotions originate. Recording something and remembering it depends to a large extent on the intensity of the emotions experienced when the event occurs. (See chapter 9) If no emotions are present, the incident won’t be remembered.
No marketer, and no advertisement, will succeed in influencing human behavior without appealing to these six keys.
13.
People Make Decisions with Their Emotions
Most people think that emotion and reason are like oil and water, that they never mix, but this is incorrect. Emotions are integral to reason, and vice versa.
For an example, we can look to the story of Elliot, a patient of the famous neuroscientist Antonio Damasio; his story is a trailblazing study of how the human brain operates. Elliot was a good father and a good husband. He spoke flawlessly and was so intelligent that he could easily solve extremely difficult mathematical problems. However, Elliot couldn’t make decisions. He would think for a long time about where to eat, what color of pen to use and whether or not to give someone an appointment, but he couldn’t figure out what decision to make. He would think about even the simplest decisions for a protracted amount of time, and then give up. Damasio found that the reason was damage to the right side of his brain that short-circuited his emotional intelligence. Even though Elliot had all the information he required, he had lost the ability to integrate and compile this information to see the big picture, which is a necessary part of decision-making.
With his studies, Damasio demonstrated that the right brain is home not only to emotions but also to the ability to integrate information. When people are emotionless, they’re also unable to utilize their logic.
As with all other decisions, people make extensive use of their emotions when they’re making purchasing decisions. People choose with their emotions first, after which they develop reasons for the choices they’ve made. They explain how logical their decision is, first to themselves and then to their social circles. As Antonio Damasio says, “We are not thinking machines. We are feeling machines that think.”
14.
People Use Shortcuts to Make Decisions
Bias is another dimension of decision-making that affects purchasing habits. When making decisions, people use practical shortcuts (heuristics) that they’ve developed as a result of their own experiences. Sometimes these shortcuts may result in consequences that aren’t in their best interests. The shortcuts create bias that causes people to deviate from what is best for them personally.
Numerous studies and scientific publications illustrate this truth. The number of distortions that the human mind makes in a variety of situations is remarkably high. Of these deviations, the following are of interest to marketers:
Status quo bias This bias describes why a person chooses their current circumstances over an option that would be better for them. An example of the “current-situation-is-good” misconception is when a person knows that he will get better and more affordable service by switching banks but still continues with the same bank. Based on personal experience, his status quo “shortcut” may convince him that staying where he is will be easier than making a change. This misconception that “the present situation is good” applies to all areas of life. This is a distortion that prevents people from leaving their current situation, even in their personal lives. (See Daniel Kahneman, Thinking, Fast and Slow.)
Endowment bias When a person owns something, the value they attribute to it is greater than its real value. This is the bias marketers use when they devise campaigns based on the “Try it. If you’re not satisfied, you can return it” principle. An object that a person takes home with them becomes more valuable to them than it was in the store. (See Daniel Kahneman.)
Blind spot bias People view themselves as having more strengths and fewer weaknesses than the average person. In all of the studies that have been conducted in this area, people consider themselves smarter, more generous and more reasonable than the average person. People are incapable of being objective and unbiased about themselves. (See Emily Pronin, et al.)
Choice supportive bias After a person makes a choice, they come up with justifications for why that choice is reasonable, and they want to prove both to themselves and their social circle how good that choice is. People are more positive about a purchase after making it. In brand image research, customers tend to like the brand they purchase and attribute superior traits to that brand because of this bias. (See Jack Brehm.)
Confirmation bias In this situation, a person first has an idea and then accepts new information if it conforms to this idea and rejects it if it doesn’t. In politics, shopping and their private lives, people are influenced by confirmation bias. People have a general tendency not to believe information that doesn’t conform to their political ideology, even if the information is true. This bias is the reason that people disregard information that contradicts a positive view they’ve developed about a brand. In a similar way, people’s decisions in their personal relationships are affected by this bias. People have difficulty making an objective assessment after they’ve reached a positive or negative judgment of someone. (See P. C. Wason.)
Distinction bias People are unable to see the difference between products with similar characteristics when they see them separately. They only understand the differences when they see them side by side. In retail marketing, brands with good products and reasonable prices want to display their products in a way that allows consumer
s to compare them with the competition. (See Hsee and Zhang.)
Extreme aversion bias When a very reasonable and logical option is an extreme one, people generally tend to choose an option that’s more middle of the road. This is why people rarely choose the most or least expensive items on the menu. (See Daniel Kahneman.)
Anchoring bias People tend to fixate or “anchor” on the first information they receive. The first price that a seller gives becomes a reference point for the price of the product. This price sticks in the buyer’s mind and influences their opinion of subsequent prices as being either cheap or expensive. If the price level reached as a result of negotiations is lower than the first price given, even if it’s higher than the real value, it will seem reasonable to the buyer. (See Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky.)
Framing bias Different ways of describing a person, an event or an idea, and the words used to describe them or it, affect people’s decisions. It’s possible to portray a murderer either as guilty of ferocious violence or as a victim of fate. The words and concepts used in the narrative determine human perception. Law, advertising and public relations are fields in which great care must be taken when framing any subject. However, the framing effect is used most commonly for propaganda. The goal of propaganda is to put a different spin on the truth and create false perceptions by describing events, people and ideas from a different perspective. (See George Lakoff’s books and “Rockridge Institute Writings.”)
