A. Wilson, Emigration from Italy in the Republican Age of Expansion (1966)
A. Wilson, ‘Machines, power and the Ancient Economy’, JRS 92 (2002), pp. 1–32
J. Winkler, ‘Lollianos and the desperadoes’, Journal of Hellenic Studies 100 (1980), pp. 155–81
P. Wiseman, ‘The publication of the De Bello Gallico’, in K. Welch & A. Powell (eds), Julius Caesar as Artful Reporter: The War Commentaries as Political Instruments (1998), pp. 1–9
R. Wolters, Die Schlacht im Teutoburger Wald (2008)
G. Woolf, ‘Roman Peace’, in J. Rich & G. Shipley, War and Society in the Roman World (1993), pp. 171–94
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D. Wooliscroft, Roman Military Signalling (2001)
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NOTES
PREFACE
1 Tacitus, Agricola 30. 5.
INTRODUCTION – A GLORY GREATER THAN WAR
1 Virgil, Aeneid 1. 278–9 (Loeb translation).
2 E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Vol. 1 (1776; Penguin Classics edn, 1995), p. 103; this passage seems to have been inspired by very similar comments made by William Robertson some years before, see R. Porter, Gibbon (1988), pp. 135–6.
3 In the UK, very large protests were staged against the Iraq War, without in any way preventing most of the people involved for voting for the same government at the next election. Earlier this year there was a general election. The violence in Ukraine, Iraq and Syria and so many other places was barely mentioned by any of the parties, whose focus was almost entirely domestic. Clearly the opinion polls guiding the parties did not suggest that voters cared about such things. However, given that the opinion polls were proved dramatically wrong in their prediction of the outcome, this may be just another reminder of their many flaws.
4 Ovid, Fasti 1. 709–18 (Loeb translation).
5 Virgil, Aeneid 6. 851–3 – tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento (Hae tibi erunt artes) pacisque imponere morem, parcere subiectis et debellare superbos.
6 G. Woolf, ‘Roman Peace’, in J. Rich & G. Shipley, War and Society in the Roman World (1993), pp. 171–94, 189; ‘robbery with violence’, see N. Faulkner, The Decline and Fall of Roman Britain (2nd edn, 2004), p. 12.
7 N. Morley, The Roman Empire. Roots of Imperialism (2010), p. 69.
CHAPTER I – THE RISE OF ROME
1 Polybius 1. 2. 7, 3. 6 (Loeb translation).
2 For Rome’s early history, T. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome. Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c.1000–264 BC) (1995) is an excellent introduction, see esp. pp. 1–30 on sources, and pp. 48–80 on Rome’s origins. A lively and challenging look at similar questions is A. Carandini (trans. S. Sartarelli), Rome. Day One (2011). Nearly every aspect of this period and the evidence for it continues to be fiercely debated by scholars.
3 On early warfare, see S. Oakley, ‘The Roman conquest of Italy’, in J. Rich & G. Shipley (eds), War and Society in the Roman World (1993), pp. 9–37, esp. pp. 12–14; on the treaty with Carthage, Polybius 3. 22. 1–23.6, 26. 1–2 with comments in F. Walbank, A Historical Commentary on Polybius Vol. 1 (1970), pp. 337–55 for detailed discussion.
4 Livy 1. 6, 9–10, 2. 16, 4. 4.
5 Cornell (1995), pp. 304–9; Herodotus 7. 170 for the quote.
6 Cornell (1995), pp. 309–13; pay, see Diodorus Siculus 14. 16. 5, Livy 4. 59. 11.
7 Cornell (1995), pp. 313–22.
8 For a good recent narrative of the Roman conquest of Italy see R. Cowan, Roman Conquests – Italy (2009), with Cornell (1995), pp. 322–6, 345–68 and Oakley (1993), pp. 14–33.
9 Refusal of Latin communities to accept Roman citizenship, see Livy 23. 20. 2–3; for a rare example of enfranchisement by Athens of surviving Plataeans, see J. Lendon, Song of Wrath. The Peloponnesian War Begins (2010), pp. 202–3, p. 472 n. 3; on Athenian manpower see H. Van Wees, Greek Warfare – Myths and Realities (2004), pp. 241–3.
10 Pliny the Elder, NH 33. 16 with comments in Cornell (1995), p. 208; Polybius 2. 24. 1–15, with Walbank (1970), pp. 196–203, and more recently D. Baronowski, ‘Roman military forces in 225 BC (Polybius 2. 23–4)’, Historia 42 (1993), pp. 181–202.
11 On the Roman army see L. Keppie, The Making of the Roman Army (1984), pp. 14–56.
12 On politics see the useful survey in M. Crawford, The Roman Republic (1978), pp. 30–37, 74–83, Cornell (1995), pp. 242–71, 327–44; for more detailed discussion of the magistrates see A. Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (1999), esp. pp. 94–120.
13 On the triumph see in general M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (2007); for aristocratic self-advertisement see in particular Polybius 6. 53. 1–54. 5.
14 On the military obligations of citizens and their impact on society see N. Rosenstein, Rome at War: Farms, Families, and Death in the Middle Republic (2004).
15 Cowan (2009), pp. 103–47, Cornell (1995), pp. 363–8.
16 On the Punic Wars in general see J. Lazenby, The First Punic War (1996), Hannibal’s War. A Military History of the Second Punic War (1998) and A. Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars (2000) (= The Fall of Carthage, 2003) as surveys and introductions to the vast literature on the subject.
17 See S. Dyson, The Creation of the Roman Frontier (1985), esp. pp. 7–125 for northern Italy and pp. 174–98 for Spain; on the wars against the Hellenistic world see E. Gruen, The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome (1984), F. Walbank, ‘Polybius and Rome’s eastern policy’, JRS 53 (1963), pp. 1–13 and P. Derow, ‘Polybius, Rome and the east’, JRS 69 (1979), pp. 1–15 for a glimpse of the extensive literature on the subject.
18 N. Purcell, ‘The creation of provincial landscape: the Roman imprint on Cisalpine Gaul’, in T. Blagg & M. Millet (eds), The Early Roman Empire in the West (1990), pp. 7–29.
CHAPTER II – WAR
1 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 7. 3–6 (Loeb translation).
2 For age of service, see the plausible suggestions in N. Rosenstein, Rome and the Mediterranean 290 to 146 BC. The Imperial Republic (2012), pp. 94–6, 112–16 and ‘Marriage and Manpower in the Hannibalic War: Assidui, Proletarii and Livy 24. 18. 7–8’, Historia 51 (2002), pp. 163–91; on military decorations see Polybius 6. 39. 1–11, with in general V. Maxfield, The Military Decorations of the Roman Army (1981).
3 For centurions, see the case of Spurius Ligustinus in Livy 42. 34. 1–35. 1 and discussion in R. Smith, Service in the Post-Marian Roman Army (1958), pp. 4–6; on governors see A. Lintott, Imperium Romanum. Politics and Administration (1993), pp. 43–69.
4 For Galba and his campaign, the fullest account is in Appian, Bell. Hisp. 55–60, with comments in S. Dyson, The Creation of the Roman Frontier (1985), pp. 203–9, J. Richardson, Hispaniae. Spain and the Development of Roman Imperialism, 218–82 BC (1986), pp. 126–7, 136–7; for the Lusitanians, see Strabo, Geog. 3. 3. 3–8, with 3. 3. 7 on wearing their hair long.
5 On fear of Carthage in 149 BC see J. Rich, ‘Fear, greed and glory: the causes of Roman war-making in the middle Republic’, in J. Rich & G. Shipley (eds), War and Society in the Roman World (1993), pp. 38–68, esp. 63–64, and for the course of the war see A. Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars (2000) (= The Fall of Carthage, 2003), pp. 331–56; Polybius 35. 1 for the ‘fiery war’ and 4. 3–14 on the problems of recruiting and the role of Scipio Aemilianus, the popular young nobleman.
6 Appian, Bell. Hisp. 56–57 on the captured Roman standards and crossing to Africa.
7 For the quote see Appian, Bell. Hisp. 59 (Loe
b translation); Galba had served in the Third Macedonian War, see Livy 45. 35. 8–39. 20, but nothing else is known of any other time with the army; on the use of resettlement, see Dyson (1985), pp. 54–5, 100–01, 104–5, 213–14, 226.
8 Suetonius, Galba 3. 2 for the total of 30,000 Lusitanians, and note that later Appian, Bell. Hisp. 61 claims that 10,000 survivors gathered by 148 BC; women’s costume, Strabo, Geog. 3. 3. 7.
9 For Wounded Knee, see the thorough reconstruction in R. Utley, The Last Days of the Sioux Nation (2nd edn, 2004), pp. 200–30.
10 Frontinus, Stratagems 1. 12. 4 for blood on shields and chests of horses; Livy 31. 34. 4–5 (Loeb translation) for Livy’s description of wounds inflicted by the Spanish sword in a skirmish during the Second Macedonian War.
11 Livy, Pers. 49, Strabo, Geog. 3. 3. 6–7 on human sacrifice and comments in Dyson (1985), pp. 204–6.
12 There is a convenient list of temples and other monuments vowed and constructed by victorious commanders in the list of building work at Rome in the early centuries in S. Oakley, ‘The Roman conquest of Italy’, in Rich & Shipley (1993), pp. 9–37, 33–5.
13 Polybius 1. 1. 5 (Loeb translation).
14 On Polybius see F. Walbank, A Historical Commentary on Polybius Vol. 1 (1970), pp.1–6.
15 For the traditional view see E. Badian, Roman Imperialism in the Late Republic (1968), R. Errington, The Dawn of Empire: Rome’s Rise to World Power (1971); the most powerful criticism of this came with the hugely influential W. Harris, War and Imperialism in Republican Rome 327–70 BC (1979), but important contributions include K. Hopkins, Conquerors and Slaves (1978) and Richardson (1986) which looks at the Spanish experience emphasising the aggression and opportunism of provincial governors eager for plunder and glory.
16 See Harris (1979), pp. 9–53 on attitudes to warfare; Richardson (1986), pp. 128–37 on the shifting pattern or sending consular or praetorian governors to the Spanish provinces.
17 On the change to the start of the consular year, see Richardson (1986), pp. 12–129.
18 First Punic War, see Polybius 1. 11. 1–3; Second Macedonian War, Polybius 18. 1. 1–12. 5, Livy 32. 32. 1–37. 6; Third Macedonian War, Livy 43. 1. 4–12.
19 Appian, Bell. Hisp. 50–55, with Dyson (1985), pp. 202–3, Richardson (1986), pp. 136–7 for contrasting assessments.
20 Livy 38. 44–50.
21 E.g. Livy 39. 6, 45. 40, Plutarch, Aemilius Paulus 34.
22 On triumphs see Rich (1993), pp. 4–53; for 1,192,000 deaths in Caesar’s campaigns see Pliny the Elder, NH 7. 92, although Velleius Paterculus 2. 47. 1 gives a figure of 400,000; on the Roman sword see the provocative study by S. James, Rome and the Sword. How Warriors and Weapons Shaped Roman History (2011), passim.
23 Polybius 10. 15. 4–5 (Loeb translation).
24 For emphasis on Roman ferocity, citing this passage, see Harris (1979), pp. 50–53.
25 On Roman looting see A. Ziolkowski, ‘Urbs direpta, or how the Romans sacked cities’, in Rich & Shipley (1993), pp. 69–91.
26 P. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 BC–AD 14 (1971), pp. 391–472, Harris (1979), pp. 44–6.
27 Polybius 31. 13. 7 (Loeb translation) for the quote; more generally on the profits of expansion see Harris (1979), pp. 54–104, Hopkins (1978), pp. 1–98 and E. Gruen, ‘Material rewards and the drive for empire’, in W. Harris (ed.), The Imperialism of Mid-Republican Rome (1984), pp. 59–82.
28 ‘massive violence’ see Harris (1979), p. 53; for a good survey of problems with Harris’ thesis see Rich (1993).
29 Rich (1993), pp. 47–55 on triumphs; Harris (1979), pp. 189–90 on alliances pretext for war and 201–05 with Richardson (1986), pp. 20–30 on Saguntum and the start of the Second Punic War.
30 By far the most important recent contribution to the debate on Roman imperialism is A. Eckstein, Mediterranean Anarchy, Interstate War, and the Rise of Rome (2006), which thoroughly demolishes the idea of Rome as uniquely aggressive.
31 On Greek warfare in general see H. Van Wees, Greek Warfare – Myths and Realities (2004), esp. pp. 77–85, 115–50, D. Dawson, The Origins of Western Warfare. Militarism and Morality in the Ancient World (1996), pp. 47–107, and Eckstein (2006), pp. 37–180; piracy and trade at Athens, see van Wees (2004), pp. 202–3; none of this is to claim that Greek states were in permanent conflict. Peaceful co-operation did occur, see for instance J. Ma, ‘Peer Polity Interaction in the Hellenistic Age’, Past & Present 180 (2003), pp. 9–39.
32 Eckstein (2006), pp. 200–04 comparing Roman ferocity with that of others, and noting that Polybius believed the Macedonians and not the Romans to be the most naturally fierce and effective soldiers.
33 Caesar, BG. 6. 15, 23, cf. 1. 2.
34 See for instance the evidence for significant fighting at the very large and organised Iron Age oppidum or town at Manching in P. Wells, The Barbarians Speak. How the Conquered Peoples Shaped Roman Europe (1999), pp. 28–31, 77–79; on head-hunting see Poseidonius quoted in Strabo, Geog. 4. 4. 5, and Diodorus Siculus 5. 29. 2–5; on the use of heads and other body parts in ritual, one example is Ribemont-sur-Ancre, for which see T. Derks, Gods, Temples and Ritual Practices: The Transformation of Religious Ideas and Values in Roman Gaul (1998), pp. 48, 234–5.
35 Eckstein (2006), pp. 244–316.
36 Harris (1979), pp. 175–254 attempted a survey of Rome’s wars in the period he covered presenting almost all as caused by Roman aggression. This has generally been seen as the weakest section of his book by critics and supporters alike, e.g. A. Sherwin-White, ‘Rome the aggressor?’, JRS 70 (1979), pp. 177–181 and J. North, ‘The development of Roman imperialism’, JRS 71 (1981), pp. 1–9.
37 Diodorus Siculus 5. 34. 6–7.
38 Strabo, Geog. 3. 3. 5.
39 On weaponry see F. Queseda Sanz, Arma de la Antigua Iberia de Tatessos a Numancia (2010), with pp. 171–80 on mercenary service.
40 Attempt to permit owners to reclaim recaptured booty in 193 BC, see Livy 35. 1.
41 Livy, Pers. 49.
42 Cato quoted in Cicero, de Oratore 1. 228 (Loeb translation), see also Cicero, Brutus 89, Livy, Pers. 49, Appian, Bell. Hisp. 60, with comments and further references in Dyson (1985), pp. 205–6.
43 Valerius Maximus 6. 4. 2.
44 On Viriathus see Appian, Bell. Hisp. 61–75, with Dyson (1985), pp. 206–13; for locals rather than Romans as the chief focus of his attacks, note that the stratagems attributed to him, Frontinus, Stratagems 2. 5. 7, 13. 4 describe tactics used against the Romans, but 3. 10. 6, 11. 4, 4. 5. 22 all deal with fighting the Segobrigenses.
45 Dyson (1985), pp. 220–24 on lessening of warfare first in Nearer Spain and then in Further Spain, while noting repeated talk of banditry, e.g. Diodorus Siculus 3. 54. 7, Plutarch, Marius 6.
CHAPTER III – FRIENDS AND RIVALS
1 Cicero, ad Att. 1. 19.
2 Caesar, BG 1. 44 (Loeb translation).
3 In general see Caesar, BG 1. 31–43, 6. 12.
4 Caesar, BG 1. 42, and for the nickname equestris see L. Keppie, The Making of the Roman Army (1984), pp. 84, 204.
5 For the dating of the Commentaries see M. Gelzer, Caesar (1968), pp. 170–72, C. Meier, Caesar (1996), pp. 254–64. For the arguments in favour of annual publication see K. Welch & A. Powell (eds), Julius Caesar As Artful Reporter (1998), and especially the article by P. Wiseman, ‘The publication of the De Bello Gallico’, pp. 1–9, and also T. Rice Holmes, Caesar’s Conquest of Gaul (1911), pp. 202–9. See also Caesar, BG 8 preface and Suetonius, Caesar 56. 3–4. In general also C. Kraus, ‘Bellum Gallicum’, in M. Griffin (ed.), A Companion to Julius Caesar (2009), pp. 159–74, and J. Osgood, ‘The Pen and the Sword: Writing and Conquest in Caesar’s Gaul’, Classical Antiquity 28 (2009), pp. 328–58.
6 On the archaeological evidence see S. Dyson, The Creation of the Roman Frontier (1985), pp. 126–73, B. Cunliffe, Greeks, Romans and Barbarians: Spheres of Interaction (1988), esp. pp. 38–58 and 80–105, N. Roymans, Tribal Societies in Northern Gaul: An Anthropological
Perspective. Cingula 12 (1990), esp. pp. 17–47, P. Wells, The Barbarians Speak (1999), pp. 48–85 and T. Burns, Rome and the Barbarians, 100 BC–AD 200 (2003), pp. 88–139.
7 On the power of noblemen expressed by the number of retainers see Caesar, BG 6. 15; on the wine trade see Cunliffe (1988), pp. 59–105, esp. 74, and Roymans (1990), pp. 147–67 and A. Tchernia, ‘Italian wine in Gaul at the end of the Republic’, in P. Garnsey, K. Hopkins & C. Whittaker (eds), Trade in the Ancient Economy (1983), pp. 87–104.
8 Strabo, Geog. 4. 3. 2 on conflict to control the Saône and its trade route. More generally see Dyson (1985), pp. 141–3, 172.
9 See discussion in Wells (1999), pp. 44–7, 75–85, Burns (2003), pp. 76–87.
10 Caesar, BG 1. 3, 4–5, 31, 6. 12, Cicero, ad Att. 1. 19. 2.
11 On amicitia in general see P. Brunt, The Fall of the Roman Republic and Related Essays (1988), pp. 351–81, C. Steel, ‘Friends, associates, wives’, in Griffin (2009), pp. 112–25, esp. 112–14; on the Aedui see D. Braund, ‘The Aedui, Troy, and the Apocolocyntosis’, Classical Quarterly 30 (1980), pp. 420–25.
12 Diviciacus in Rome, see Cicero, de Divinatione 1. 41. 90, cf. ad Att. 1. 19. 2–3, and Caesar, BG 1. 31, 35, 43 and 6. 13–14 on druids and druidic training ; Pliny the Elder, NH 2. 67 describes an encounter between a Metellus as proconsul with a king of the Suebi. The purpose of the anecdote is the unlikely claim that the German leader handed over sailors who had come from India and been washed ashore in his territory.
13 See Dyson (1985), pp. 169–71.
14 Caesar, BG 1. 3–4, 18; for differing views on what the Helvetii and their leaders planned see T. Rice Holmes, Caesar’s Conquest of Gaul (1911), pp. 218–24, and H. Delbrück (trans. J. Renfroe), History of the Art of War Vol. 1: Warfare in Antiquity (1975), pp. 459–78, and A. Goldsworthy, Caesar: The Life of a Colossus (2006), pp. 205–11.
15 Desire to be first, Plutarch, Caesar 11; the focus on the Balkans, see C. Goudineau, César et la Gaule (1995), pp. 130–48.
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