6 Dio 69. 6. 3 (Loeb translation); on emperors as benefactors see F. Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World (31 BC–AD 337) (1977), pp. 135–9.
7 Arrian, Periplus 1.
8 SEG 28. 1462. 1–3, see O. van Nijf, ‘Local heroes: athletics, festivals and elite self-fashioning in the Roman East’, in Goldhill (2001), pp. 306–34, esp. 318; for the cities in Asia Minor see R. Sherk, Roman Documents from the Greek East (1969), no. 65.
9 On Hadrian’s buildings in Athens see J. Camp, The Archaeology of Athens (2001), pp. 199–208.
10 See G. Woolf, Becoming Roman. The Origins of Provincial Civilization in Gaul (1998), pp. 48–76, 112–41.
11 D. Mattingly, An Imperial Possession. Britain in the Roman Empire (2006), pp. 271–2.
12 S. Mitchell, Anatolia. Land, Men, and Gods in Asia Minor Vol. 1: The Celts in Anatolia and the Impact of Roman Rule (1993), pp. 80–98, esp. 87–8 on the tribal boundaries.
13 Tacitus, Agricola 21 (Loeb translation).
14 Tacitus, Agricola 21 (Loeb translation).
15 Woolf (1998), pp. 135–68, Mattingly (2006), pp. 255–350.
16 Dio Chrysostom, Orations 35.15.
17 Tacitus, Agricola 24, Strabo, Geog. 17. 24, Appian, praef. 7.
18 For taxation and the economy in general important studies include K. Hopkins, ‘Rome, taxes, rent and trade’, in W. Scheidel & S. von Reden (eds), The Ancient Economy (2002), pp. 190–230, which restates his earlier argument that tax stimulated production, and the recent P. Temin, The Roman Market Economy (2013); on deforestation see Mattingly (2006), pp. 363–6.
19 Suetonius, Tiberius 32. 2 for quote; surprise at rarity of rebellion provoked by over-taxation see D. Mattingly, Imperialism, Power, and Identity. Experiencing the Roman Empire (2011), pp. 137–8.
20 For a good discussion of several estates in an eastern province see T. Corsten, ‘Estates in Roman Asia Minor: the case of Kibyratis’, in S. Mitchell & C. Katsari (eds), Patterns in the Economy of Roman Asia Minor (2005), pp. 1–51, esp. 17–27.
21 For some discussion of olive oil see S. Mitchell, ‘Olive oil cultivation in the economy of Roman Asia Minor’, in Mitchell & Katsari (2005), pp. 83–113; on levels of pollution see A. Wilson, ‘Machines, power and the Ancient Economy’, JRS 92 (2002), pp. 1–32, esp. 17–29.
22 On the roads in Anatolia see Mitchell (1993), pp. 124–36, 245–53.
23 Josephus, Vitae 16, on Livia as a patron see A. Barrett, Livia. First Lady of Imperial Rome (2002), pp. 195–9.
24 P. Brunt, ‘Charges of provincial maladministration under the early Principate’, Historia 10 (1961), pp. 189–227, with A. Lintott, Imperium Romanum. Politics and Administration (1993), pp. 120–21; Pliny the Younger, Ep. 3. 9. 4. 7, 9. 2–3, quote from Loeb translation.
25 Figures from Brunt (1961), pp. 224–7; Tacitus, Agricola 19, Licinus in Gaul from Dio 54. 21. 2–8.
26 Pliny the Younger, Ep. 3. 9. 13 for the quote, and the whole letter for the case.
27 On overall effectiveness see the pessimistic assessment of Brunt (1961), pp. 206–23.
28 On frumentarii see N. Austin & B. Rankov, Exploratio. Military and Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople (1995), pp. 136–7, 150–54; on Lucullus see Suetonius, Domitian 10. 3; for Avidius Cassius see A. Goldsworthy, The Fall of the West (= How Rome Fell) (2009), p. 51.
29 For Piso see Tacitus, Ann. 2. 55, 57–8, 69–81, 3. 7–18, with M. Griffin, ‘The Senate’s story’, JRS 87 (1997), pp. 249–63 for the inscription.
30 Pliny the Younger, Ep. 3. 4. 5–6.
31 I. Haynes, Blood of the Provinces. The Roman Auxilia and the Making of Provincial Society from Augustus to the Severus (2013), pp. 339–67; on veterans and villagers see R. Alston, ‘The ties that bind: soldiers and societies’, in A. Goldsworthy & I. Haynes (eds), The Roman Army as a Community. JRA Supplementary Series 34 (1999), pp. 175–95.
32 Strabo, Geog. 3. 5. 3; on citizenship in general see A. Sherwin-White, The Roman Citizenship (1973), pp. 221–87.
33 Pliny the Younger, Ep. 3. 9. 3; Claudius and the Gauls, see Tacitus, Ann. 11. 23–4, ILS 212, with a convenient translation in B. Levick, The Government of the Roman Empire. A Sourcebook (2nd edn, 2000), pp. 178–82.
34 Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Pertinax 1. 1–4. 4, 5. 7–13. 8, with Goldsworthy (2009), pp. 56–7.
35 Woolf (1998), pp. 148–60.
36 Mattingly (2006), pp. 367, 375–7, 383.
37 See P. Garnsey, Famine and Food Supply in the Graeco-Roman World (1988), passim.
38 Josephus, Ant. 15. 305–16.
39 Pliny the Younger, Ep. 10. 65–6, S. Pomeroy, ‘Coprynyms and the exposure of infants in Egypt’, in A. Cameron & A. Kuhrt (eds), Images of Women in Antiquity (1983), pp. 207–22, and also T. Parkin, Demography and Roman Society (1992), pp. 91–133; Varro, de re rustica 2. 10. 9.
40 On runaway slaves see C. Fuhrmann, Policing the Roman Empire (2012), pp. 21–43, on demands for services see S. Mitchell, ‘Requisitioned transport in the Roman empire: a new inscription from Pisidia’, JRS 66 (1976), pp. 106–31; on the mining in Jordan see Mattingly (2011), pp. 167–99, esp. 181–2, 197.
41 B. Frier, ‘Roman Demography’, in D. Potter & D. Mattingly (eds), Life, Death and Entertainment in the Roman Empire (1999), pp. 95–109, W. Scheidel, ‘Germs for Rome’, in C. Edwards & G. Woolf (eds), Rome the Cosmopolis (2003), pp. 158–76.
42 Apuleius, Metamorphoses 9. 39–10. 1; John the Baptist, see Luke 3. 14; for Simon the Cyrenian see Matthew 27. 32, Mark 15. 21, Luke 23. 26.
43 Acts 16. 16–40.
44 Acts 18. 12–17.
45 Acts 21. 35–7, 22. 24–9, 24. 22–7, 25. 1–21.
46 Acts 27. 1–28. 31; on the cohors Augusta see M. Speidel, ‘The Roman army in Judaea under the Procurators’, in M. Speidel, Roman Army Studies Vol. 2: Mavors (1992), pp. 224–32; on the executions under Nero see Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 2. 25.
47 Josephus, Vitae 13.
48 John 18. 3; a useful historical survey of the trial of Jesus and Pontius Pilate’s role in it is H. Bond, Pontius Pilate in History and Interpretation. Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series 100 (1998), pp. 94–207.
49 John 19. 12 for quote; Joseph of Arimathea, Matthew 27. 57–60 (not mentioning his membership of the Sanhedrin), Mark 15. 42–6, Luke 23. 50–53, John 19. 38–40 (again not mentioning his membership of the Sanhedrin); on the Tiberieum see Bond (1999), pp. 11–12.
50 Luke 23. 16, 22; for Barabbas and the release of a prisoner, Matthew 27. 15–26, Mark 15. 6–15, Luke 23. 18–25, John 18. 40; Pilate’s wife, Matthew 27. 19; placard, Matthew 27. 37, Mark 15. 26, Luke 23. 38, John 19. 19–22.
51 Bond (1998) is a good survey of all that is known about Pilate. In the fourth century AD Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 2. 7 claimed that ‘tradition’ maintained that the former prefect later committed suicide, but there is no earlier evidence for this and it may well be an invention. The so-called Acts of Pilate were certainly a later invention by a pagan author hostile to Christians. We should note that such obscurity over an individual after he held office is normal for equestrians and very common even for senators.
CHAPTER XII – THE ARMY AND THE FRONTIERS
1 Josephus, BJ 3. 72–4 (Loeb translation).
2 For the army in general see G. Webster, The Roman Imperial Army of the First and Second Centuries AD (3rd edn, 1998), Y. Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army (1994), and A. Goldsworthy, The Complete Roman Army (2003).
3 On demography see B. Frier, ‘Roman Demography’, in D. Potter & D. Mattingly (eds), Life, Death and Entertainment in the Roman Empire (1999), pp. 95–109. Estimates based on the ability of land to support population remain heavily influences by K. Beloch, Die Bevölkerung der griechisch-römischen Welt (1886); for more recent studies see R. Bagnall & B. Frier, The Demography of Roman Egypt (1994), T. Parkin, Demography and Roman Society (1992), W. Scheidel, Measuring Sex, Age, and Death in the Roman Empire. Explorations in
Ancient Demography. JRA Supplementary Series 21 (1996), and D. Rathbone, ‘Villages, land and population in Graeco-Roman Egypt’, PCPS 36 (1990), pp. 103–42, and C. Edwards & G. Woolf (eds), Rome the Cosmopolis (2003), esp. W. Scheidel, ‘Germs for Rome’, pp. 158–76 for a very bleak assessment of urban life.
4 Tacitus, Ann. 4. 5; M. Bishop, Handbook to Roman Legionary Fortresses (2012) offers an excellent survey of all known legionary fortresses and their garrisons.
5 For the movements of the legions, a useful survey is Le Bohec (1994), pp. 24–6, 165–78.
6 Aelius Aristides, Roman Oration 80–82 (Brill translation), Appian, Praef. 7 (Loeb translation), Herodian 2. 11. 5 (Loeb translation).
7 Webster (1998), pp. 167–230; see also B. Dobson, ‘The rôle of the fort’, in W. Hanson (ed.), The Army and the Frontiers. JRA Supplementary Series 74 (2009), pp. 25–32.
8 See A. Goldsworthy, The Roman Army at War 100 BC–AD 200 (1996), pp. 13–38.
9 Quote from Tacitus, Agricola (Loeb translation); on the differences between legionary and auxiliary equipment see M. Bishop & B. Coulston, Roman Military Equipment. From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome (2nd edn, 2006), pp. 254–9.
10 Tacitus, Agricola 35; on order in the pursuit see Arrian, Ectaxis 27–8.
11 Josephus, BJ 3. 73–6 (Loeb translation).
12 R. Fink, Roman Military Rewards on Papyrus (1971), p. 87.
13 R. Fink, Roman Military Rewards on Papyrus (1971), p. 99.
14 N. Austin & B. Rankov, Exploratio. Military and Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople (1995), pp. 158–9 for thetatus; discharge document B. Grenfell, A. Hunt, H. Bell et alii (eds), The Oxyrhynchus Papyri (1898–), p. 39 and R. Davies, Service in the Roman Army (1989), p. 227.
15 Arrian, Periplus Ponti Euxini (trans. A. Liddle, 2003), 6. 1–2, 9. 3–4, 9. 5; Latin report, 6. 2; exercises, 3. 1, 10. 3–4; pay, 6. 1, 10. 3.
16 The excellent M. Speidel, Emperor Hadrian’s Speeches to the African Army – A New Text (2006) provides the best text and analysis of this inscription and the quotes are from his translation; to III Augusta, 2. 1–8; archers, 22. 1–11; ‘nothing must ever . . .’ 26. 9; legionary cavalry, 6. 5–10; ala I Pannoniorum 29. 5–7.
17 Speidel (2006), fields 19, 20, 30 for Hadrian’s comments on mounting horses and jumping.
18 R. Tomlin, ‘Making the machine work’, in A. Goldsworthy & I. Haynes (eds), The Roman Army as a Community. JRA Supplementary Series 34 (1999), pp. 127–38, with M. Speidel, ‘The missing weapons at Carlisle’, Britannia 38 (2007), pp. 237–9, esp. 238–9 on the subarmales.
19 Austin & Rankov (1995), pp. 155–69.
20 On centurions see E. Birley, ‘The origins of legionary centurions’, and ‘Promotion and transfer in the Roman army II: the centurionate’, in E. Birley, The Roman Army. Papers 1929–1986 (1988), pp. 189–220, B. Dobson, ‘The significance of the centurion and primipilaris in the Roman army and administration’, ANRW 2. 1 (1974), pp. 392–434, ‘Legionary centurion or equestrian officer? A comparison of pay and prospects’, Ancient Society 3 (1972), pp. 193–207; Fortunatus ILS 2658 = CIL 8. 217, Honoratus, ILS 2655 = CIL 8. 14698.
21 J. Thomas & R. Davies, ‘A new military strength report on papyrus’, JRS 67 (1977), pp. 50–61, col. 1, lines 2–7.
22 Pliny the Younger, Ep. 2. 13. 2 (Loeb translation); on the ab epistulis and his military role and the frumentarii see Austin & Rankov (1995), pp. 135–41.
23 Tacitus, Ann. 2. 55 (Loeb translation).
24 M. Griffin, ‘The Senate’s story. Review of Das Senatus Consultum de Cn. Pisone Patre by Werner Eck; Antonio Caballos; Fernando Fernández’, JRS 87 (1997), pp. 249–63, quote from p. 251.
25 Germanicus, see Tacitus, Ann. 1. 35.
26 Statius, Silvae 5. 1. 83–100 on the duties of the ab epistulis.
27 Suetonius, Tiberius 25; for the relationship with the army see B. Campbell, The Emperor and the Roman Army 31 BC–AD 235 (1984).
28 Dio 77. 15. 2.
29 Much of the debate was sparked by E. Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire: From the First Century AD to the Third (1976); significant contributions include F. Millar, ‘Emperors, frontiers and foreign relations, 31 BC to AD 378’, Britannia 13 (1982), pp. 1–23, B. Isaac, The Limits of Empire. The Roman Army in the East (rev. edn, 1992), E. Wheeler, ‘Methodological limits and the mirage of Roman Strategy. Parts 1 & 2’, The Journal of Military History 57 (1993), pp. 7–41 and 215–40, C. Whittaker, Frontiers of the Roman Empire. A Social and Economic Study (1994) and Rome and its Frontiers. The Dynamics of Empire (2004), S. Mattern, Rome and the Enemy. Imperial Strategy in the Principate (1999) and D. Breeze, The Frontiers of Imperial Rome (2011).
30 For Roman relations with Parthia see B. Campbell, ‘War and diplomacy: Rome and Parthia, 31 BC–AD 235’, in J. Rich & G. Shipley (eds), War and Society in the Roman World (1993), pp. 213–40, and D. Kennedy, ‘Parthia and Rome: eastern perspectives’, in D. Kennedy (ed.), The Roman Army in the East. JRA Supplementary Series 18 (1996), pp. 67–90.
31 Plutarch, Crassus 21.
32 On Parthian armies see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 60–68, Kennedy (1996), pp. 83–4.
33 Isaac (1992), pp. 20–23.
34 Tacitus, Ann. 6. 35.
35 Tacitus, Germania 13–14, and in general Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 42–60.
36 Tacitus, Germania 30 (Loeb translation).
37 Caesar, BG 6. 23.
38 Velleius Paterculus 2. 109. 1–2, Tacitus, Ann. 2. 45.
39 Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 74–5.
40 See B. Rankov, ‘A “secret of empire” (imperii arcanum): an unacknowledged factor in Roman imperial expansion’, in Hanson (2009), pp. 163–72.
41 Strabo, Geog. 17. 1. 54 (Loeb translation); in general see A. Goldsworthy, ‘War’, in P. Sabin, H. van Wees, & M. Whitby (eds), The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare Vol. 2: Rome from the Late Republic to the Late Empire (2007), pp. 76–85, 106–20.
42 An insightful survey of Roman relations with the Parthians is found in Wheeler (1993), pp. 30–37.
43 Tacitus, Hist. 4. 51.
44 Tacitus, Ann. 12. 50; for an overview of the campaign see A. Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome (2003), pp. 273–87.
45 Tacitus, Ann. 13. 9; for a narrative of the wars between Rome and Parthia see R. Sheldon, Rome’s Wars in Parthia: Blood in the Sand (2010).
46 Dio 75. 3. 2.
47 Tabulae Vindolandenses II 164.
48 B. Campbell, ‘Who were the viri militares?’, JRS 65 (1975), pp. 11–31 is sceptical about clear career paths for a distinct group of military men, but this does not mean that ability was not an important factor in appointments.
49 Suetonius, Domitian 7. 3.
50 E.g. J. Drinkwater, The Alamanni and Rome 213–496 (Caracalla to Clovis) (2007), pp. 14, 49 on women.
51 ILS 986, see P. Conole & R. Milns, ‘Neronian frontier policy in the Balkans: the career of Ti. Plautius Silvanus’, Historia 32 (1983), pp. 183–200; translation taken from B. Levick, The Government of the Roman Empire. A Sourcebook (2nd edn, 2000), pp. 34–5.
CHAPTER XIII – GARRISONS AND RAIDS
1 Ammianus Marcellinus 27. 2. 11 (Loeb translation).
2 For Tacfarinas and the first campaign see Tacitus, Ann. 2. 52.
3 For the region under Augustus and Tacfarinas see D. Whittaker in CAH2 X, pp. 591–6, E. Fentress, Numidia and the Roman Army. BAR International Series 53 (1979), pp. 66–8 and D. Cherry, Frontier and Society in Roman North Africa (1998), pp. 24–43.
4 Tacitus, Ann. 3. 21, Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights 5. 6. 14, ILS 2637; on veterans see A. Goldsworthy, The Roman Army at War 100 BC–AD 200 (1996), p. 16, on decimation see G. Watson, The Roman Soldier (1969), pp. 119–20.
5 Tacitus, Ann. 3. 20–21.
6 Tacitus, Ann. 3. 32, 73.
7 Tacitus, Ann. 3. 74.
8 Tacitus, Ann. 4. 23–6.
9 Cherry (1998), pp. 24–71, esp. 63–6 on the fossatum.
10 ‘To separate the Romans from the barbarians’, Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Vita Hadriani 11. 2; on the sources for Hadrian’s Wall see D. Breeze, Handbook to the Roman Wall (14th edn, 2006), pp. 25–34, and for the wall in general see this and D. Breeze & B. Dobson, Hadrian’s Wall (4th edn, 2000); two fragments of an inscription, RIB 1051, have been reconstructed to state Hadrian’s official intention in building the wall, but this is highly conjectural.
11 See B. Rankov, ‘Do rivers make good frontiers?’, in Z. Visy, Limes XIX. Proceedings of the XIXth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies held in Pécs, Hungary, September 2003 (2005), pp. 175–81.
12 For the frontiers in general see D. Breeze, The Frontiers of Imperial Rome (2011); on caution on guessing the function of a fort’s garrison purely from its position see the cautionary comments in B. Isaac, The Limits of Empire (rev. edn, 1992), pp. 409–10.
13 For arguments that the severe limitations of Roman maps made many aspects of central strategic planning impossible see Isaac (1992), pp. 387–408, with emphasis on political geography, and C. Whittaker, ‘Mental maps and frontiers: seeing like a Roman’, in Rome and its Frontiers. The Dynamics of Empire (2004), pp. 63–87, which opens with the naive assertion that Julius Caesar getting lost on the way to the River Rubicon reflects a lack of maps. Given how easy it is to lose the way even with a map, especially in poor visibility or at night, this is strange. For sensible criticism of pushing such views to an extreme see E. Wheeler, ‘Methodological limits and the mirage of Roman Strategy’ Part 2, The Journal of Military History 57 (1993), pp. 236–9.
14 D. Wooliscroft, Roman Military Signalling (2001), pp. 51–78, 95–7, 109–35, 155–7.
15 Tacitus, Agricola 22. 1–2.
16 On forts in general see A. Johnson, Roman Forts (1983) and P. Bidwell, Roman Forts in Britain (2007); on South Shields see summary and references in Breeze (2006), pp. 115–28.
17 On Hadrian’s Wall see Breeze & Dobson (2000), pp. 25–83; on the Gask ridge see D. Wooliscroft & B. Hoffman, Rome’s First Frontier. The Flavian Occupation of Northern Scotland (2006), esp. pp. 175–88.
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