by Chris Harman
De Valera, Éamon: Participant in 1916 Easter Rising, declared president of Republic in 1919, opposed treaty with Britain 1921, elected prime minister of 26-county ‘free state’ 1932. Dominated government with brief period in opposition until death 1959.
Deng Xiaoping: Veteran Chinese Communist leader, purged during Cultural Revolution of 1966–67. Return to power after death of Mao in 1976, dominated government and introduced market mechanisms. Responsible for crushing of Tiananmen Square demonstrations of 1989.
Dollfuss, Engelbert: Chancellor of Austria 1932, proclaimed himself dictator May 1933, put down socialist rising February 1934, assassinated by rival Nazi organisation July 1934.
Dreiser, Theodore: Major American realist novelist of first third of twentieth century.
Durutti, Buenaventura: Most famous Spanish anarchosyndicalist. Assassinated archbishop of Saragossa in early 1920s, carried out bank robberies in Latin America in late 1920s, imprisoned for leading uprisings under second Spanish republic 1931–34. Helped organise rising against attempted military coup in Barcelona July 1936, led military column into Aragon, killed on Madrid front end of 1936.
Eisner, Kurt: German Social Democrat in Munich, supported Bernstein’s social reformism but opposed First World War. Revolutionary workers and soldiers made him prime minister of Bavaria, November 1919. Murdered by right-wing officer.
Erasmus: Early sixteenth-century north European thinker of Renaissance, born in Holland and lived for time in England. Opposed Reformation, but condemned by Counter-Reformation.
Feuerbach, Ludwig: German materialist philosopher of 1840s who saw that humans had created god, not vice versa.
Ford, Henry: Founder of Ford car company, established world’s first car assembly plant, vehement opponent of trade unions, sympathetic to Hitler in 1930s.
Franco, Francisco: Spanish general, crushed Asturias rising 1934, led coup of July 1936 and fascist forces in civil war. Dictator 1939–75.
Franklin, Benjamin: Rich printer and publisher in mid-eighteenth century Pennsylvania. Agent for US colonies in London, friend of French Enlightenment intellectuals and scientist in his own right. Signatory to Declaration of Independence in 1776.
Friedman, Milton: Free market economist, with ‘monetarist’ belief that if governments control money supply properly crises are impossible.
Galileo: Astronomer and physicist of late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries who laid foundations of modern physics.
Gandhi, Mahatma: London-educated lawyer who donned peasant clothes to lead Indian national movement after First World War. Opposed violent methods and strikes which might affect Indian capitalists, assassinated by Hindu chauvinists 1948. No relation to Indira Gandhi.
Gibbon, Edward: English historian of eighteenth century whose Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire was scathing about influence of Christianity.
Giolitti, Giovanni: Bourgeois politician who dominated Italian government before, during and immediately after First World War.
Gladstone, William: Dominant figure in Liberal Party, as main party of industrial capital, in nineteenth century Britain.
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von: Leading poet, playwright and novelist in Germany in late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.
Gomulka, Stanislaw: Leading Polish Communist in post-war years. Imprisoned in last period of Stalin’s life. Returned to power to popular acclaim in 1956. Imposed repression of his own. Driven from office by strikes in 1969–70.
Gordon, Charles George: British soldier who helped destroy Summer Palace in Beijing, then suppressed T’ai-p’ing rebellion in 1860s, killed at Siege of Khartoum in 1885.
Gracchus, Caius: Reformer who became hero of Roman peasantry in 120s BC. Like his brother, murdered by rich.
Gracchus, Tiberius: Reformer who became hero of Roman peasantry in 130s BC, murdered by rich.
Gramsci, Antonio: Italian revolutionary Marxist. Leading figure in movement to establish workers’ councils in Turin in 1919–20. Founder member of Italian Communist Party 1921. Took over leadership 1924–26. Imprisoned by Mussolini until shortly before his death in 1937. In prison, opposed Stalin’s ‘third period’.
Guesde, Jules: French socialist, in exile after Commune, led Marxist wing of socialist movement until he joined war cabinet in 1914.
Guevara, Che: Young Argentinian doctor among first of Castro’s guerrillas to land in Cuba in 1956. In charge of industrialisation in revolutionary regime established in 1959. Fell out with Soviet Union in mid-1960s, left Cuba to spread revolution abroad. Murdered by CIA in Bolivia in 1967.
Harmsworth, Alfred: Later Lord Northcliffe. Newspaper proprietor who produced first mass-circulation right-wing popular papers at end of nineteenth century.
Hayek, Friedrich von: Rabid pro-market economist who inspired Margaret Thatcher.
Healey, Denis: Leading figure in British Labour Party 1950s to 1980s. Minister in 1964–70 and 1974–79 governments.
Hébert, Jacques: Radical Jacobin, backed by sans-culottes in Great French Revolution. Executed by Robespierre March 1794.
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich: German philosopher of late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, developed dialectical method but in obscure way.
Helvetius: French materialist philosopher of eighteenth century, part of Enlightenment.
Hidalgo, Miguel: Mexican priest who led uprising against Spanish in 1810, shot in 1811.
Hilferding, Rudolf: Austrian Marxist economist, active in German socialist movement. Attempted middle way between Bolshevism and right-wing Social Democracy in 1919–20. Social Democrat finance minister in coalition governments of autumn 1923 and 1928. Resigned 1929, impotent in face of economic crisis. Murdered by Nazis in exile 1940.
Hindenburg, Paul von: Commanded German armed forces with near-dictatorial power in First World War. President of German Republic 1925–34. Appointed Hitler as chancellor January 1933.
Ho Chi Minh: Vietnamese Communist leader from 1920s. Leader of Vietminh resistance to Japanese and French colonial rule. Ruler of North Vietnam after 1954, symbol of resistance to US in 1960s and early 1970s, ruler of all Vietnam after May 1975.
Hobsbawm, Eric: British historian, Communist Party member for half a century, author of four volumes of history from 1780s to present day.
Hugenberg, Alfred: German newspaper and film magnate, right-wing leader of conservative National Party, member of Hitler’s cabinet January–June 1933.
Iglesias, Pablo: Founded Spanish Socialist Party (PSOE) 1879, its president until 1925.
Jefferson, Thomas: Plantation owner in Virginia in second half of eighteenth century, drew up Declaration of Independence, president of US 1801–09.
Johnson, Lyndon Baines: President of US 1963–68.
Josephus: Jewish leader of revolt against Rome who switched sides and then wrote famous history.
Justinian: Emperor of Byzantium mid-sixth century AD. Tried to reconquer Italy and north Africa. Oversaw completion of Saint Sophia cathedral.
Kautsky, Karl: Best-known intellectual in German socialist movement after death of Engels. Known as ‘pope of Marxism’, disliked First World War but opposed revolutionary action against it. Opponent of Bolshevik Revolution.
Kennedy, Robert: Brother of J F Kennedy. Attorney-general during his presidency of US 1960–63. Supporter of Vietnam War until popular opposition to it exploded in 1968. Assassinated while campaigning for presidency.
Kepler, Johannes: Astronomer and mathematician who developed Copernicus’s ideas in late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries.
Kerensky, Alexander: Led Russian provisional government summer–autumn 1917.
Keynes, John Maynard: English liberal and free market economist who became convinced of need for state intervention in 1930s.
Khrushchev, Nikita: Former Stalinist overlord in Ukraine who became leader of USSR soon after Stalin’s death in 1953. Denounced Stalin in 1956 and 1958. Crushed Hungarian Revolution of 1956. Removed from office in 1964 by Brezhn
ev.
Kipling, Rudyard: British writer of late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, born in India.
Kissinger, Henry: In charge of foreign policy for US Republican governments 1968–76. War criminal who received Nobel Peace Prize.
Kitchener, Lord: British general responsible for Omdurman (Sudan) massacre of 1898 and concentration camps in Boer War in South Africa. Head of military in First World War until death in 1916.
Knox, John: Leader of Calvinist Reformation in late sixteenth-century Scotland.
Lafargue, Paul: Son-in-law of Karl Marx, led Marxist wing of French socialist movement until suicide in 1911.
Lafayette: French general, assisted American colonies in War of Independence, dominant government figure first two years of French Revolution, in exile under republic, helped Louis Philippe become king 1830.
Lamartine, Alphonse: French poet and historian who played key role in French second republic of 1848.
Lenin, Vladimir: Early member of Marxist organisation in Russia, leader of its Bolshevik wing after 1903. Leader of Soviet government after 1917, incapacitated early 1923, died 1924.
Lewis, John L: Leader of US miners’ union, founded CIO union federation mid-1930s.
Liebknecht, Karl: German Social Democrat MP, opponent of First World War, founder member of Spartakusbund revolutionary group, imprisoned, proclaimed socialist republic November 1918, murdered January 1919.
Liu Shaoqi (Liu Shao-ch’i): Leading Chinese Communist from late 1920s on. President after 1962. Removed from office and disgraced during Cultural Revolution 1966–67.
Lloyd George, David: A leader of British Liberal Party 1900–40. Introduced radical budget before First World War, but formed coalition with Tories 1916 and ruled with them until 1922. Partitioned Ireland 1921.
Louis Bonaparte (also known as Napoleon III): Nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte (Napoleon I), elected president of France 1848, emperor 1852–70.
Louis XIV: French king whose reign saw enormous growth in power of monarchy, built palace at Versailles.
Louis XV: Ruler of France for much of first half of eighteenth century.
Loyola, Ignatius: Founded Jesuits to propagate Roman Catholicism forcefully in mid-sixteenth century.
Ludendorff, Erich: German general with virtually dictatorial powers alongside Hindenburg in First World War. Allied with Hitler in 1923 but later fell out with him.
Luther, Martin: Dissident German monk who led Protestant break with Rome after 1517.
Luxemburg, Rosa: Born of Jewish family in Russian-occupied Poland in 1871. In exile from late 1880s. Leader of revolutionary left within both German and Polish socialist movements. In prison in First World War, murdered January 1919.
Machiavelli, Niccolò: Civil servant in Florence around 1500, famous for his book The Prince , which seems to glorify the most unscrupulous political methods.
MacDonald, Ramsay: Founder member of Independent Labour Party in Britain in mid-1890s, leader of Labour Party before First World War. Opposed war from non-revolutionary standpoint 1914. Prime minister in Labour minority governments 1924 and 1929–31. Switched sides to lead Tory ‘National’ government 1931–35.
Mahdi: Mohammed Ahmed, leader of Sudanese revolt against British-run Egypt in 1880s.
Malraux, André: Left-wing French writer of late 1920s and early 1930s. Helped organise Republican air force in Spanish Civil War. Supporter of General de Gaulle after Second World War. Minister in Gaullist governments after 1958.
Malthus, Thomas: English clergyman of late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries – his theory of population claimed increasing their wealth would make the poor poorer.
Mann, Tom: Engineering worker, played leading role in dock strike of 1889, Great Unrest 1910–14, joined Communist Party 1921.
Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung): Leader of Chinese Communist Party from early 1930s and of Chinese government after 1949. Played only figurehead role 1962–66. Returned to full influence with ‘Cultural Revolution’. Died 1975.
Marat, Jean-Paul: Doctor to upper classes who became hero of poor during French Revolution after 1789. Worked with Robespierre and Danton to establish Jacobin government in 1793, hated by ‘moderates’ and assassinated July 1793.
Marcuse, Herbert: German Marxist philosopher living in US after Hitler came to power. Inspirer of many left-wing ideas in 1968.
Marie Antoinette: Austrian princess and queen of France executed by Revolution.
Marius: General who used support of poor to push for power in Rome around 100 BC.
Mary Stuart: Mary Queen of Scots, executed by Elizabeth I of England.
Mary Tudor: ‘Bloody Mary’, queen of England and wife of Philip II of Spain, tried to reimpose Roman Catholicism in England in mid-sixteenth century.
McClellan, George: Head of Northern army in American Civil War, 1861–62.
Medici: Name of merchant and banking family that dominated life of fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Florence. Patrons of many Renaissance artists. Included two popes, and a sixteenth-century French queen.
Moctezuma (sometimes Montezuma): Aztec ruler conquered by Spanish.
Molotov, Vyacheslav: Bolshevik activist in 1917, supporter of Stalin from early 1920s, leading figure in Russian regime until purged by Khrushchev 1958.
Morelos, José María: Mexican priest, led revolt against Spanish after death of Hidalgo, shot 1815.
Müntzer, Thomas (sometimes spelt Münzer): Religious revolutionary during Reformation who played important role during Peasant War of 1525, executed by princes with support of Martin Luther. Not to be confused with town of Munster, which subsequent religious rebels seized in early 1530s.
Mussolini, Benito: Leader of Italian fascism. Started off as left-wing socialist, became enthusiastic nationalist in First World War. Took power 1922, invaded Ethiopia 1935, joined war on German side 1940, overthrown in southern Italy 1943, ran pro-German puppet government in north, hanged upside down by partisans 1945.
Nasser, Abdel: Army officer, led revolution against Egyptian monarchy 1952, president 1956 until death in 1970. Inspired nationalists throughout Arab world.
Nehru, Jawaharlal: Harrow-educated leader of Indian National Congress from 1920s. Imprisoned Second World War, prime minister 1947–64.
Nixon, Richard: US president and war criminal, driven from office for Watergate burglary of Democratic Party office in 1975.
Octavian: Later Roman emperor Augustus, nephew of Julius Caesar.
Orwell, George: English writer, socialist in 1930s, fought in Spain with far left POUM party, supported revolutionary stance in Homage to Catalonia , satirised Stalinism in Animal Farm and 1984 .
Owen, Robert: Pioneering industrialist of early nineteenth century who became convinced of need for form of socialism based on cooperative communities.
Paine, Tom: British-born artisan, leading pamphleteer for American Revolution, returned to Britain to champion French Revolution, forced to flee country and then imprisoned by Jacobins in France.
Palmerston, Lord: Dominant figure in many British Whig governments of 1830s to 1860s.
Papen, Franz von: Chancellor of Germany, May–November 1932, vice-chancellor in Hitler’s government 1933–34, then ambassador for Nazi regime.
Paul, Saint: Saul of Tarsus, Jew with Roman citizenship, converted to Christianity. Responsible for spread of Christianity across Greek and Roman worlds and for most of its doctrines.
Perón, Juan: Colonel, president of Argentina 1946 with mass popular support and dictatorial powers. Overthrown 1955. Returned to power mid-1973, succeeded on death by wife ‘Isabelita’, who was overthrown by coup in 1976.
Pizarro, Francisco: Led Spanish conquest of Incas in early 1530s.
Plato: Ancient Greek philosopher, disciple of Socrates. His views influenced Christian theology from fifth to fourteenth centuries.
Priestley, Joseph: Late eighteenth-century English chemist, and enthusiast for French Revolution.
Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph: French socialist
writer of 1840s to 1860s, opposed political action by workers, believed society should be run as ‘mutual’ association of independent small producers.
Ptolemy (Claudius): Mathematician and astronomer whose picture of universe with sun and planets going round earth dominated throughout European Middle Ages.
Radek, Karl: Polish revolutionary, joined Bolsheviks in 1917, leading figure in early Communist International, supported Trotsky 1924–28, then went over to Stalin. Died in slave labour camp after Moscow trials.
Robespierre, Maximilien: Lawyer from Arras in northern France who led most revolutionary, ‘Jacobin’, section of bourgeoisie in 1789–94, when executed.
Roosevelt, Franklin D: US president 1933–45.
Rothermere, Lord: Brother of Alfred Harmsworth (Lord Northcliffe), ran press empire of his own, minister in British First World War government. Supported fascist Blackshirts in mid-1930s.
Roux, Jacques: Ex-priest who played key role in agitating among sans-culottes of Paris in French Revolution. Committed suicide rather than face execution February 1794.
Russell, Bertrand: Major British empiricist philosopher and polemicist from 1890s to 1960. Reformist socialist, opposed First World War and Vietnam War.
Saint-Just, Louis: Close colleague of Robespierre during French Revolution. Executed after Thermidor aged 27. Famous for statement, ‘Those who half make a revolution dig their own graves.’
Sargon: First ruler to establish empire over all of Fertile Crescent, around 2300 BC.
Saul of Tarsus: Original name of Saint Paul.
Say, Jean-Baptiste: French economist of early nineteenth century whose ‘law’ claimed overproduction impossible.
Serge, Victor: Born in Belgium to Russian family, jailed for anarchist sympathies in France before First World War, exiled to Spain, went to Russia 1919 to join Bolsheviks, worked for Communist International, supported Trotsky’s opposition to Stalin, freed to go to France just before Moscow trials, escaped advancing German army to Mexico in 1940. Author of novels, particularly The Case of Comrade Tulayev, Memoirs of a Revolutionary , and history, Year One of the Russian Revolution .
