From Turkey the crew flew to Kinshasa, their only stop in Africa. In July the USIS in Congo had “pulled out all stops in exploiting the Apollo 11 moon-landing mission,” the astronaut briefing report explained. The US documentary One Giant Leap for Mankind had been playing in Kinshasa’s commercial theaters since mid-September.56 Members of the Giantstep party described the welcome as one of the warmest that they had experienced on their trip. Almost the entire population of the city greeted the astronauts when they arrived, and the news coverage of the event was extremely heavy. President Mobutu remarked that the people “appreciate highly the honor and the privilege that was reserved to them by the US people and government by inscribing Kinshasa as the African stop of your world tour, and they see, in this attention, a new testimony of the sincere and deep friendship which unites your great country to theirs.” Similar to the stop in Oslo and many other cities, the visit was treated as an honor and mark of distinction. A Congolese newspaper noted that the visit was “testimony to the confidence the Congo enjoys at the present time in the eyes of the world” and a recognition of the “privileged place occupied by the Congo in Africa.”57
From Africa, the crew flew to Iran and then India and Pakistan. Although Iran practiced what the US State Department called “independent foreign policy,” the country was viewed as an important ally in the region. In Tehran, “close to a million persons, jamming sidewalks, rooftops, balconies and windows poured out their welcome” during the motorcade. That evening, the astronauts and their wives attended the shah’s fiftieth birthday party. The crew received the Order of the Taj, Persian carpets, and a model of the Saturn V constructed and presented by nine-year-old Crown Prince Reza Pahlavi. In return, the astronauts offered a reproduction of the plaque and silicon disk left on the moon. At the press conference, Armstrong again stressed that “we feel that [the] outerspace program is of and for everybody around the world,” reaching a television audience in the tens of thousands.58
The Apollo 11 crew members visit Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo, October 1969. (NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION)
When the astronauts arrived in India, they were greeted by more than two million people and the kind of sweltering humidity where—according to NASA support staff member Gennie Barnes—“you could see the heat rising, literally rising, kind of like a cloud.”59 The principal objective of this two-day visit was exposing the astronauts to “the maximum number of people in the limited time available,” a goal easily accomplished in a country where enthusiasm for space travel ran high. Leaving the Santa Cruz airport at 3:10 p.m. on October 26, the astronauts made their way on a fifteen-mile route into Bombay.
For years, the United States had been courting India—one of the most prominent and populous nations of the nonaligned movement—through the promotion of its space successes and with cooperative space projects.60 During the planning stage of the tour, William Thompson, an officer from the Near East and South Asia (IAN) Bureau of the USIA, had made the case that “the nomination of India is, we believe, self-explanatory. It is the largest country in the non-communist world and is of paramount importance in Asia. A visit by the Apollo 11 crew would dramatically support our policy objectives in India and would be particularly useful in strengthening our relations with the Indian scientific community, one of the most sophisticated in Asia.”61
As Thompson alluded, the United States was pursuing tighter relations with the Indian scientific community as an instrument of diplomacy and influence. One project in particular, the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE), promised to strengthen these ties while simultaneously diverting Indian attention away from the development of nuclear weapons, a major US objective.62 The newly established Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) teamed up with NASA to develop SITE, a direct broadcasting communications satellite that would give rural communities access to educational television. In 1969 India’s population had swollen to nearly 550 million, a number higher than South America and Africa combined. Seventy-five percent of this population resided in rural areas dominated by agricultural production. Strategically, the astronauts repeatedly referenced the new educational satellite project aimed at this population, as well as instances of American-Indian space cooperation that contributed to development. Even though their visit was short, the astronauts made sure to emphasize the shared interests and friendship of the two countries whenever possible.63
In advance of the astronauts’ visit, the USIS post distributed 100,000 motorcade route maps, 5,000 of which were used by the Bombay Police Department for traffic planning. Major Bombay newspapers reprinted the map, and All India Radio broadcast details about the route. As the party’s motorcade slowly made its way down the fifteen-mile stretch, crowds of people five to ten deep lined the road while “balconies, rooftops, car-tops, trees and every conceivable vantage point was packed with cheering waving citizens,” according to a report. The Indian Express described the scene as “people, people all the way, 15 miles of cheers. The cheers, claps, bravos, whistles, and applause… were tremendous.”64
Bourgin had a slightly different take on the motorcade. As he wrote to his wife from the hotel that night, “My god what a day. Two million people in streets of city and countryside so totally different [than] any I’ve seen, I still can’t believe.… Downtown Bombay [is] regal with great style. Suburbs a nightmare of people.”65
The public event at Azad Maidan, an expansive triangular-shaped sports ground, was “standing-room only,” reported the Times of India. It was the “biggest-ever welcome in the city,” outstripping the previous popular visits by the shah of Iran and Pope Paul VI. The mayor of Bombay, J. K. Joshi, began the ceremony by welcoming the astronauts to the city and introducing them as “a team of gallant men, illustrious space pilots and distinguished citizens of America.” Buzz Aldrin gave the kind of down-to-earth response that astronauts were becoming well-known for: “We thank you all for coming out on this Sunday afternoon to see us.”66
A full-scale replica of the lunar module Eagle, almost twenty-three-feet high, sat waiting for the Apollo 11 crew on a circular platform designed to mimic a “Moon basin” in the center of the Azad Maidan. The tour photographer thought that the astronauts wouldn’t climb the ladder of the model and pose for photos. But he was wrong. Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins graciously ascended the ladder, waved to the hundreds of thousands of Bombay residents, and smiled for the newspaper cameras as “a thunderous ovation” spread among the crowd.67
Armstrong playfully commented that “only three months ago, our lunar module Eagle landed on the moon—but somehow it seems to have found its way to Bombay,” referencing the model built by Indian engineers. Although the joke was scripted, prepared by foreign affairs officers before the visit, it was so well received that it appeared in nearly every newspaper article covering the event.
The crew’s wives and their hosts sat atop another circular platform a short distance from the “Moon basin.” This gray circular structure represented Earth. American ambassador Kenneth Keating reaffirmed the US diplomatic framing of Project Apollo when he referenced those “eight days in July when the world grew smaller, and for one golden moment we were all brothers as we shared in the suspense of the moon voyage.”68
The Apollo 11 astronauts wave from a model of the lunar module in India, October 1969. (NATIONAL ARCHIVES)
Then Armstrong deftly emphasized the international participation in US space exploration, as he had done since his first diplomatic tour in 1966. Seventy-four nations contributed to Project Apollo, he explained to the scores of people gathered at Azad Maidan. Just three months earlier, he and Aldrin had left a disk on the moon that was inscribed with Indian prime minister Indira Gandhi’s message “Peace for all mankind.” Further underscoring this theme, he stressed that the United States was resolved to make international cooperation wider and deeper in the coming years. Armstrong declared that “space research and technology belong not to one—or two nations alone�
��but to all the countries of the world. For there are no boundaries in space—and this is as it should be.”69
Aldrin augmented this message by describing the “magnificent gathering” as a “symbol of the spirit of international adventure.” The year “1969 will be remembered as the year man set foot on [the] moon,” he reflected, but “I think it will also be remembered as the year when the world grew smaller and international co-operation increased.”70 Aldrin went on to describe how all humans have the same needs, the same aspirations. Space research, he explained, had the potential to improve people’s lives, especially when undertaken cooperatively between nations. Aldrin’s prepared script ended with a quotation from Mahatma Gandhi: “We may call ourselves Christians, Hindus, or Mohammedans… but whatever we may be, beneath that diversity, there is a oneness which is unmistakable.” Bourgin later assessed that “Aldrin [was] by far [the] best speaker in the park.”71
Before leaving the event, Armstrong gave the mayor a photograph of the first footprint on the moon. In exchange, the crew and their wives received sandalwood garlands. From the event at the Azad Maidan the Apollo crew went to a press conference, where two hundred media representatives were gathered. As they often did, the astronauts provided the narration for a twenty-minute film that took the press through each stage of the Apollo 11 mission. Sitting in front of an expansive Apollo photomural, the astronauts answered questions before rushing off to their next appointment at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research to meet with scientists. At Tata, Bourgin implored the crew not to overstay their scheduled twenty-minute visit.72
They had a night to recuperate, “get washed,” and “get some food” at the palatial Taj Mahal Hotel, constructed in 1903. Simon Bourgin called it a “fascinating hotel, straight out of [the] days of British Raj.”73 At 8:00 the next morning, the Giantstep party piled back into their “drag-bag of vintages, plus only open car in city,” and began another motorcade along a new route to the airport. Hundreds of thousands of people gathered in the streets to watch them slowly drive by. In the following days, as the astronauts touched down in East Pakistan (soon to be an independent Bangladesh) and then went on to Bangkok, their visit to Bombay made the front pages of all major Indian news outlets, reaching a readership of nearly nine million people.74
Aldrin later commented that it was a “terribly depressing country and it was also an awkward stop from a diplomatic standpoint,” but “if Bombay was depressing, Dacca was even more so… I can see why a revolution was inevitable.”75 Although the crowds were generally enthusiastic, a group of political, student, and religious leaders called Aldrin a “member of the Zionist movement” and insisted that the government of Pakistan ban the crew from visiting the country. According to a USIA memo, “The rationale of the statement is really a compliment to the astronauts: we cannot permit America to erase anti-American feelings in the minds of Pakistanis through the American moon men.” In response, the USIA released a story that stressed Aldrin’s commitment to Presbyterianism and his work with the Boy Scouts. Even with criticisms from some groups, the visit to East Pakistan was considered “extremely successful and most productive in terms of serving US Foreign policy interests and USIS objectives in Pakistan.”76
The Apollo 11 crew members visit Thailand, October 1969. (NATIONAL ARCHIVES)
The Apollo 11 crew members visit South Korea, November 1969. (TAE WON CHUNG © STARS AND STRIPES)
From East Pakistan the party flew to Bangkok, where one editorial claimed that “no American goodwill ambassadors have achieved such great success in promoting friendship, good understanding and a feeling of joint responsibility among all human beings as these astronauts.”77 From Thailand, the party flew to Darwin, where they refueled and then went to Sydney, Guam, Seoul, and Tokyo.
In Sydney, according to a telegram from the US Embassy, the “image of [the] United States was enhanced through the personalities and actions of the astronauts themselves,” and in Seoul the visit “increased bonds of friendship already strong with Korea, added to strength [of the] image of US as [a] strong ally way out ahead in space effort and by analogy strong in [a] military sense.”78
In Tokyo they were welcomed by a cheering crowd of more than a hundred thousand people throwing confetti, an audience with the royal family, and the honor of being the first foreigners to receive Japan’s Cultural Medals. A USIS telegram from Tokyo reported that the “astronauts’ visit to Japan was [an] unparalleled success in highlighting and humanizing [the] image of US scientific achievements in space research.” The reception in Japan was so positive that Armstrong expressed his regret that they were not able to stay longer, especially in a country with such scientific sophistication and strong mass media.79
When Bourgin presented his last briefing on November 5, 1969, the Apollo 11 crew and their wives had already been traveling for weeks: “Here are a few helpful reminders. 1. The water is drinkable, although it is not the most popular native drink. 2. You can always expect student demonstrations. 3. Never turn your back on the president. 4. Never be seen with the vice president. 5. If you leave your shoes outside the door, they will be stolen. 6. It is unsafe to walk on the street after dark. 7. Do not discuss the following sensitive issues with the natives: Vietnam War, Budget, Foreign Aid, Import-Exports. 8. Rate of exchange is .05 cents per one dollar (American).”80 The moonwalkers likely laughed when he finished. They were bound for Washington, DC, the last stop of the tour. Although they were not visiting a foreign country and it was doubtful their shoes would be stolen at the White House, Bourgin’s playful briefing held true weight. The US was facing significant challenges at the end of 1969. The “sensitive issues” that he highlighted in the mock briefing were the very topics to avoid when meeting with the leader of the United States. Although the first lunar landing had marked the cutting edge of human technological achievements and was in many ways the pinnacle of engineering and managerial success in this period, it could not be divorced from the fact that the US was also struggling to cope with poverty, crime, racial tension, environmental problems, and the Vietnam War.
Two days earlier, on November 3, Nixon had given his famous “Silent Majority” speech, calling on his “fellow Americans” to support his Vietnam policy. In October, tens of thousands of protesters had stormed Washington while Nixon sat contemptuously inside the White House and watched a football game on television. Combined with millions of marchers attending rallies around the country, the October 15 antiwar protest was the largest in US history. Roughly two weeks later, on a Monday night at 9:32 p.m., Nixon went on national television and radio from his desk in the Oval Office to outline his plans for the Vietnam War and ask “the great silent majority of my fellow Americans” for their support. In a stern but calm voice, Nixon explained that on November 3, “North Vietnam cannot defeat or humiliate the United States. Only Americans can do that.”81 Now, on November 5, he was about to welcome the Apollo 11 crew—in his mind, the “ideal Americans”—back to the United States.
By the time the crew arrived at the White House on November 5, they were exhausted, and it showed on their faces. After traveling 44,650 miles in just 38 days, directly on the heels of their lunar mission, what the astronauts needed most was rest. Nixon, perhaps sympathizing with his weary guests, kept the celebration in Washington small. First, they would attend an intimate gathering on the South Lawn of the White House for members of the Cabinet and White House staffers and then join the president for a quiet dinner followed by an overnight stay. “We think that after all they have done publicly, it is time they had an evening by themselves—and why not in ‘everybody’s house,’ the White House,” Nixon melodramatically explained.82
In the middle of a cold November afternoon, the three astronauts stood hatless and coatless in the wind as the Army fife and drum band, dressed up in Revolutionary War costume, played on the South Lawn. From the red-carpeted platform, President Nixon exclaimed that their tour was “the most successful goodwill trip in the history of the U
nited States.”83 “We are trying to indicate to you our appreciation, not only for what you did in your travel to the moon but also what you did for the cause of peace and better understanding through your travel on this earth,” Nixon explained. “Certainly, the first men ever to land on the moon have demonstrated that they are the best possible ambassadors America could have on this earth.”84
Reports and commentary on the tour emphasize that it was a resounding success. Bourgin’s review indicated that American ambassadors observed a new flexibility in tackling a “host of problems whose approaches were otherwise frozen.” He went on to explain that “by their modesty, expertise, and warmth the astronauts projected an image of the kind of Americans other nations would like us to be.”85 A diplomat in Bogotá reported that “New contacts were made, and old contacts were reinforced. The American hegemony in the field of science, although never overtly expressed, was implicit by necessity in all of the activities.” Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs U. Alexis Johnson suggested that “the visits of the Apollo 11 astronauts to many nations… have helped greatly in extending and deepening the sense of personal involvement of the peoples of the world in our space program.”86 Giantstep drew record crowds, prompted extensive media coverage, and eased political relationships between the United States and many countries.
Buzz Aldrin, Michael Collins, Neil Armstrong, and President Richard Nixon at the White House, November 1969. (NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION)
Operation Moonglow Page 28
