by Michio Kaku
In the movie Iron Man, suave industrialist Tony Stark dons a sleek computerized suit of armor, bristling with missiles, bullets, flares, and explosives. It quickly transforms a frail human into a powerful superhero. But the real magic is on the inside of the suit, which is crammed with the latest computer technology, all controlled by a direct connection with Tony Stark’s brain. At the speed of thought, he can rocket into the sky or launch his incredible array of weaponry.
As fanciful as Iron Man may be, it is now possible to build a version of this device.
This is not just an academic exercise, since one day we may have to alter and enhance our bodies using cybernetics or even change our genetic makeup in order to survive in hostile exoplanetary environments. Transhumanism, instead of being a branch of science fiction or a fringe movement, may become an essential part of our very existence.
Furthermore, as robots become increasingly powerful and even surpass us in intelligence, we may have to merge with them—or face being replaced by our creations.
Let us explore these various possibilities, especially as they relate to exploring and colonizing the universe.
SUPERSTRENGTH
The world was shocked in 1995 when Christopher Reeve, the handsome actor who played Superman in the movies, was tragically paralyzed from the neck down in an accident. Reeve, who soared into space on the screen, was confined permanently to a wheelchair and was able to breathe only with the help of a respirator. His dream was to use modern technology to regain control of his limbs. He died in 2004, just a decade before this was accomplished.
At the 2014 World Cup in São Paolo, Brazil, a man kicked a soccer ball to start the games, an event witnessed by a billion people. This by itself was not remarkable. What was remarkable was that this man was paralyzed. Professor Miguel Nicolelis of Duke University had inserted a chip into the man’s brain. The chip was connected to a portable computer that controlled his exoskeleton. By simply thinking, this paralyzed individual was able to walk and kick the ball.
When I interviewed Dr. Nicolelis, he said that when he was a child, he was mesmerized by the Apollo mission to the moon. His goal was to create another sensation, like the moon landing. Wiring that paralyzed patient so he could kick the ball at the World Cup was a dream come true. It was his moon shot.
I once interviewed John Donoghue of Brown University, one of the pioneers of this approach. He told me that it takes a bit of training, like riding a bicycle, but soon his patients are able to control the motion of an exoskeleton and can do simple tasks (such as grabbing a cup of water, operating household appliances, controlling a wheelchair, and surfing the web). This is possible because a computer is able to recognize certain brain patterns associated with specific body movements. The computer can then activate the exoskeleton so that these electrical impulses are converted into action. One of his paralyzed patients was elated that she could grab a cup of soda and drink from it, something that was previously beyond her capability.
Work done at Duke, Brown, Johns Hopkins, and other universities has given the gift of mobility to people who had long given up hope that they would ever move again. And the U.S. military has devoted more than $150 million in a program called Revolutionary Prosthetics to sponsor these devices for the benefit of veterans from Iraq and Afghanistan, many of them suffering from spinal cord injuries. Eventually, thousands of people who are confined to wheelchairs and beds—whether as the result of warfare, car accidents, disease, or sports injuries—may be able to have the use of their limbs back again.
Besides exoskeletons, another possibility is to strengthen the human body biologically to live on a planet with greater gravity. This possibility was raised when scientists discovered a gene that causes muscles to expand. This was first found in mice, when a genetic mutation caused mice to become muscle-bound. The press dubbed it the “Mighty Mouse gene.” Later, the human form of this gene was found and was dubbed the “Schwarzenegger gene.”
The scientists who isolated this gene expected phone calls from doctors wishing to help their patients suffering from degenerative muscle diseases. They were surprised, however, when half the calls that came in were from bodybuilders who wanted to bulk up. And most of them did not care that this research was experimental, with unknown side effects. Already it is causing headaches for the sports industry, because it is much harder to detect than other forms of chemical enhancement.
Having the ability to control one’s muscle mass may prove important if we explore planets that have a gravitational field larger than the Earth’s. So far, astronomers have found a large number of super-Earths (rocky planets within the habitable zone that might even have oceans). They seem likely candidates for human habitation, except their gravitational field can be 50 percent greater than Earth’s. This means that it might be necessary to increase our muscles and bones in order to thrive on them.
ENHANCING OURSELVES
In addition to enhancing our muscles, scientists have begun to use this technology to sharpen our senses. People who suffer from certain kinds of deafness now have the option of using cochlear implants. These devices are remarkable, capable of transforming the sound waves coming into the ear into electrical signals that can be sent to the auditory nerve and then the brain. Already about half a million people have chosen to have these sensors implanted.
And for some of those who are blind, an artificial retina can restore a limited amount of vision. This device can be located either in an external camera or it can be placed directly on the retina. This device translates visual images into electrical impulses that the brain can then translate back into visual imagery.
One example, the Argus II, consists of a tiny video camera placed in a person’s glasses. The images are then sent to an artificial retina, which relays the signals to the optic nerve. This device can create images of about 60 pixels, and an improved version now being tested has a resolution of 240 pixels. (By contrast, the human eye can recognize the equivalent of about a million pixels, and a person needs at least 600 pixels to identify faces and familiar objects.) A German company is experimenting with another artificial retina with 1,500 pixels that, if successful, might allow a vision-impaired person to function almost normally.
Blind individuals who have tried these artificial retinas have been amazed that they can see colors and outlines of images. It is only a matter of time before we have artificial retinas that can rival human eyesight. And beyond that, it may be possible for an artificial retina to see “colors” corresponding to things that are invisible to the human eye. For example, people are often burned in the kitchen because a hot metal pot looks identical to a cold one. This is because our eyes are incapable of seeing infrared heat radiation. But artificial retinas and goggles can be constructed that can easily detect it, such as night-vision goggles used by the military. So, with artificial retinas, a person may have the ability to see that heat signature and also see other forms of radiation that are invisible to us. This super-vision, in turn, may prove invaluable on other planets. On distant worlds conditions will be radically different. The atmosphere may be dark, hazy, or obscured by dust or impurities. It might be possible to create artificial retinas that can “see” through a Martian dust storm via infrared heat detectors. On distant moons, where sunlight is almost nonexistent, these artificial retinas could intensify whatever reflected light there is.
Another example would be a device that detects ultraviolet radiation, which is harmful and can cause skin cancer but is common throughout the universe. On the Earth, we are protected from intense UV light from the sun by our atmosphere, but on Mars, the UV light is unfiltered. Because UV light is invisible, we are often unaware when we are exposed to harmful levels. But someone with super-vision on Mars could immediately see if the UV light is harmful. On a planet like Venus, which is perpetually clouded over, these artificial retinas would be able to use UV light to navigate around the terrain (in the same way that bees detect UV light from the sun to find their way on an overcast
day).
Another application of super-vision would be telescopic and microscopic vision. Tiny, special lenses would enable us to see distant objects, or minuscule objects and cells, without having to lug around bulky telescopes and microscopes.
This type of technology may also give us the power of telepathy and telekinesis. Already, it is possible to create a chip that can pick up our brain waves, decipher some of them, and then transmit this information to the internet. For example, my colleague Stephen Hawking, who suffers from ALS, has lost all motor functions, including the movement of his fingers. Today, a chip has been placed in his glasses that can pick up brain waves that are then sent to a laptop and a computer. In this way, he can type messages mentally, albeit slowly.
From there it is a short step to telekinesis (the ability to move objects with the mind). Using this same technology, one can connect the brain directly to a robot or other mechanical device that can then execute our mental commands. It’s easy to imagine that, in the future, telepathy and telekinesis will be the norm; we will interact with machines by sheer thought. Our mind will be able to turn on the lights, activate the internet, dictate letters, play video games, communicate with friends, call for a car, purchase merchandise, conjure any movie—all just by thinking. Astronauts of the future may use the power of their minds to pilot their spaceships or explore distant planets. Cities may rise from the deserts of Mars, all due to master builders who mentally control the work of robots.
Of course, this process of enhancing ourselves is not new but has been happening for all of human existence. Throughout history, we see examples of how humans have used artificial means to enhance our power and influence: clothing, tattoos, makeup, headdresses, ceremonial robes, feathers, glasses, hearing aids, microphones, headphones, et cetera. In fact, it seems to be a universal feature of all human societies that we try to tinker with our bodies, especially to increase our chances of reproductive success. The difference, however, between enhancements of the past and the future is that, as we explore the universe, enhancements may be the key to surviving in different environments. In the future, we might live in the mental age, where our thoughts control the world around us.
THE POWER OF THE MIND
Another milestone in brain research was achieved when scientists, for the first time in history, were able to record a memory. Scientists at Wake Forest and the University of Southern California put electrodes on the hippocampus of mice, where short-term memories are processed. They recorded the impulses within the hippocampus as the mice executed simple tasks, such as learning to drink water from a tube. Later, after the mice had forgotten this task, their hippocampus was stimulated by the recording, and the mice remembered immediately. Primate memories have also been recorded with similar results.
The next target may be to record the memories of patients suffering from Alzheimer’s disease. Then we can place a “brain pacemaker” or “memory chip” on their hippocampus, which will flood it with memories of who they are, where they live, and who their relatives are. The military has taken a serious interest in this. In 2017, the Pentagon announced a $65 million grant to develop a tiny, advanced chip that can analyze a million human neurons as the brain communicates with a computer and forms memories.
We will need to study and refine this technique, but by the late twenty-first century, it is conceivable that we might be able to upload complex memories into our brain. In principle, we might be able to transfer skills and abilities, even entire college courses, into our brain, enhancing our capabilities almost without limit.
This may prove useful for astronauts of the future. When landing on a new planet or moon, there are so many details to learn and memorize about the new environment and so many technologies that have to be mastered. So uploading memories might be the most efficient way to learn entirely new information about distant worlds.
But Dr. Nicolelis wants to go much farther with this technology. He told me that all these breakthroughs in neurology will eventually give rise to the “brain net,” which is the next stage in the evolution of the internet. Instead of transmitting bits of information, brain net will transmit entire emotions, feelings, sensations, and memories.
This could help to break down barriers between people. Often, it is hard to understand other people’s point of view, their suffering and anguish. But with brain net, we would be able to experience firsthand the anxieties and fears that trouble others.
This could revolutionize the entertainment industry, in the same way that the talkies rapidly replaced silent movies. In the future, audiences may be able to feel the emotions of the actors, to experience their pain, joy, or suffering. The movies of today may soon be obsolete.
So astronauts of the future may be able to use brain net in important ways. They will be able to mentally communicate with other settlers, instantly exchange vital information, and amuse themselves with an entirely new form of entertainment. Also, since space exploration is potentially dangerous, they will be able to sense a person’s mental condition much more accurately than before. When embarking on a new space mission to explore dangerous terrain, having brain net will help astronauts bond and also reveal mental problems, such as depression or anxiety.
There is also the possibility of using genetic engineering to enhance the mind. At Princeton University, a gene was found in mice (dubbed the “smart mouse gene”) that increased their ability to navigate mazes. The gene is called NR2B, and it is involved in communication between the cells of the hippocampus. Researchers found that when mice lacked the NR2B gene, their memory was impaired as they navigated the maze. However, if they had extra copies of the NR2B gene, their memory was enhanced.
These researchers placed mice in a shallow pan of water that had an underwater platform they could stand on. Once they found the platform, the smart mice were able to remember instantly where it was and swim directly to it when reintroduced to the environment. Ordinary mice, by contrast, could not remember the location of the platform and swam randomly. So memory enhancement is a possibility.
THE FUTURE OF FLIGHT
Humans have always dreamed of flying like the birds. The god Mercury had tiny wings on his hat and ankles that allowed him to fly. There is also the myth of Icarus, who used wax to attach feathers to his arms in order to fly. Unfortunately, he flew too close to the sun. The wax melted, and he plunged into the ocean. But the technology of the future will finally give us the gift of flight.
On a planet with a thin atmosphere and rugged terrain like Mars, perhaps the most convenient way to travel is the jet pack, a staple of science fiction cartoons and movies. It appeared in the very first Buck Rogers strip back in 1929, when Buck meets his future girlfriend while she is soaring through the air using a jet pack. In reality, the jet pack was deployed during World War II when the Nazis needed a quick way to transport troops across a river whose bridge had been destroyed. The Nazi jet pack used hydrogen peroxide as fuel, which quickly ignites in contact with a catalyst (such as silver) to release energy and water as waste products. However, there are several problems with jet packs. The main one is that the fuel supply lasts for only thirty seconds to a minute. (In old news clips, you sometimes see daredevils using jet packs to float in the air, such as at the 1984 Olympics. However, these tapes are carefully edited since people float for only thirty seconds to a minute before they fall to the ground.)
The solution to this problem is to develop a portable power pack with enough energy to power longer periods of flight. Unfortunately, no such power supply is available at the present time.
This is also the reason why we don’t have ray guns. A laser can work like a ray gun but only if you have a nuclear power plant generating the energy. However, it’s impractical to have a nuclear power plant on your shoulders. So jet packs and ray guns will not become real until we create miniature power packs, perhaps in the form of a nanobattery that can store energy at the molecular level.
Another possibility, often featured in paintings and
movies of angels or human mutants, is using wings like a bird. On planets with a thick atmosphere, it might be possible to simply jump, flap wings attached to your arms, and take off like a bird. (The thicker the atmosphere, the greater the lift and the easier it is to fly in the air.) So the dream of Icarus could become reality. But birds have several advantages that we don’t. Their bones are hollow, and their bodies are quite thin and small compared to their wingspan. Humans, on the other hand, are quite dense and heavy. The human wingspan would have to be twenty to thirty feet across, and we would need much stronger back muscles to flap them. To genetically modify someone to have wings is beyond our technical ability. At present, it is difficult to properly move a single gene, let alone the hundreds of genes necessary to create a viable wing. So while having the wings of an angel is not impossible, the final product is a long way off and will not look like the graceful paintings we are used to seeing.
It was once thought that genetic engineering to modify the human race was the dream of science fiction writers, nothing more. However, a new, revolutionary development has changed all that. The pace of discovery is so dramatic that scientists have hastily convened conferences to discuss slowing down the rate of these new developments.
CRISPR REVOLUTION
The pace of discovery in the field of biotechnology has recently accelerated to a fever pitch with the coming of a new technology called CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats), which promises cheap, efficient, and precise ways to edit DNA. In the past, genetic engineering has been a slow and imprecise process. In gene therapy, for example, a “good gene” is inserted into a virus (which has been neutralized so it is harmless). Then the virus is inserted into the patient, where it quickly infects a person’s cells and injects the DNA. The goal is to have the DNA insert itself in the proper place along the chromosome, so that the cell’s defective code is replaced by the good gene. Some common diseases are caused by a single misspelling in one’s DNA, including sickle-cell anemia, Tay-Sachs, and cystic fibrosis. The hope is this can be corrected.
