Franz Burchart, one of the delegates and also vice-chancellor of Saxony, thought the king might well marry a German princess and wrote to John Frederick, Anne of Cleves’ brother-in-law and head of the league, that ‘lord Cromwell, who is most favourably inclined to the German nation, wants most dearly that the king should wed himself with the German princes’.18 It was also suggested again that the Princess Mary could marry William of Cleves.
Anne’s brother William had become Duke of Guelderland giving the region more strategic importance and annoying Charles V who saw William and Cleves as a thorn bordering his Hapsburg lands in the Low Countries. The Holy Roman Emperor wrote how ‘after the death of Charles of Egmont, Duke William of Cleves seized upon the government of the duchy of Guelders, asserting a claim to it. His Imperial Majesty, seeing how matters stood, and how he consequently ought to and could act, made him offers, the conditions of which were such that they ought reasonably to be accepted’19 but William was not about to give up his hold on the area. It also had implications for his sister’s betrothal to Francis of Lorraine, heir to Guelderland through their marriage treaty and the agreement between Anne’s father and the previous duke. Francis could not be permitted to marry her now or William’s new prize would be forfeit. Anne of Cleves was still available.
Cromwell was still hoping for a Cleves match but there were other candidates. In August Holbein and Hoby were sent to obtain a portrait of Marie de Guises’ sister Renee to no avail as she was no longer in the marriage market after becoming a nun at St Peter’s in Rheims. Louise was at home but ill. Her mother was wary of the ambassadors and wrote to her daughter Marie now married to James V in Scotland ‘The gentleman (Hoby) came to see me, pretending that he was on his way to find the Emperor, and, having heard that Louise was ill, would not pass by without inquiring after her, that he might take back news of her health to the King his master. He begged to be allowed to see her, which he did, although it was a day when the fever was on her… He then told me that, as he was so near Lorraine, he meant to go on to Nancy to see the country. I have no doubt that he was going there to draw Mademoiselle’s portrait, in the same way he has drawn others…’20
They did indeed travel on to Nancy to paint Anne of Lorraine, another possible bride. Later in the year, ambassadors were sent to pay court to Christina of Denmark to try and further marriage negotiations with the widowed duchess. Christina was extremely forthright in letting them know she hardly saw Henry as a suitable husband and ‘that the King’s Majesty was in so little space rid of the queens that she dare not trust his Council, though she durst trust his Majesty; for her council suspecteth that her great-aunt was poisoned, that the second was innocently put to death, and the third lost for lack of keeping in her childbed’21 She certainly told it how it was although a comment attributed to her – that if she had two heads, she would give Henry one – was probably untrue. As she told Thomas Wriotheseley, she was at the Holy Roman Emperor’s command to which he replied:
Then I hope to be among the Englishmen that shall be first acquainted with my new mistress, for the Emperor hath instantly desired it. Oh, Madam, how happy shall you be if it be your chance to be matched with my master! You shall be matched with the most gentle gentleman that liveth, his nature so benign and pleasant that I think to this day no man hath heard many angry words pass his mouth. As God shall help me, if he were no King, instead one of the most puissant Princes of Christendom, I think, if you saw him, you would say that for his virtues, gentleness, wisdom, experience, goodliness of person, and all other gifts and qualities, he were worthy to be made a King. I know your Grace to be of goodly parentage, and to have many great Princesses in your family, but if God sent this to a good conclusion, you shall be of all the rest the most happy.22
Wriotheseley certainly knew how to talk favourably of the king even if no one believed his words. But Charles V was fast becoming annoyed at Henry’s demands. Although a marriage treaty was being negotiated it frequently stalled. The English king wanted Christina rather than her older sister to succeed the Danish throne and revenues from the duchy of Milan he wanted protected in the event of French interference. At the same time negotiations for the Princess Mary to marry Dom Luis of Portugal, related to Charles V, rather than William of Cleves were running more smoothly but in the end would fail as would the negotiations for Henry’s marriage to Christina of Denmark.
A papal dispensation was needed due to Christina’s relationship to Katherine of Aragon and given Henry’s current situation that would hardly be forthcoming. He had been excommunicated in December 1538 with Pope Paul III issuing a ‘Bull against Hen. VIII., renewing the execution of the bull of 30 Aug. 1535, which had been suspended in hope of his amendment, as he has since gone to still further excesses, having dug up and burned the bones of St Thomas of Canterbury and scattered the ashes to the winds, (after calling the saint to judgment, condemning him as contumacious, and proclaiming him a traitor), and spoiled his shrine. He has also spoiled St. Augustine’s monastery in the same city, driven out the monks and put in deer in their place’.23 Henry’s transgression included not only these points but his divorce, his dissolution of the monasteries, religious persecution and calling himself Supreme Head of the Church of England. The pope urged Francis I, Charles V and James V of Scotland to declare war on the heretic English king and the new year saw England in a frenzy of preparation should war be declared and an invasion attempted. Coastal fortifications were improved using stone from dissolved monasteries and beacons were made ready to signal an attack. Henry increased the ships in his navy and had his troops mustered should they need to set sail at a moment’s notice. Likewise the Scottish border was reinforced and across the country men were made aware that they may be called to fight. Defences in Calais and Guisnes were also tightened. Henry rode out to Portsmouth to inspect his ships and check England’s south coast defences.
The new French ambassador who replaced Castillon was Charles de Marillac. He informed Montmorency, Constable of France and Francis I’s advisor:
The English continue to fortify the frontiers in all haste, and take musters everywhere, for which business the princes [sic] and other lords who have charge from the King are dispersed in different places. Cromwell returned the day before yesterday from a place 25 miles from hence where he had made a muster of 10,000 men, and next Friday, St. George’s Day, that of London shall be made, which may be 50,000 or 60,000 men, for no one who can bear arms is excepted; even strangers here engaged in commerce are compelled to provide themselves harness and wear the livery of the city. Five or six ships do nothing but circle round the kingdom in order to explore and correspond if need be by fires with those who watch by night upon certain “gardes” of wood lately erected; so that no foreign vessel could show itself without the whole country being warned. Most of the King’s ships of war have already made sail, and very few remain even of those taken from the King’s subjects and strangers which are not in fighting order. Computes that the utmost number they can put to sea is 30 ships of 300 tons; 30 or 40 of 200, to 300 tons, and 80 of smaller burden. This may exceed the 150 sail that I wrote they intended to make, but for the present they have not more than 90 or 92 well equipped. Thinks if they can make 120 for this year it will be the utmost; and even that is much for the little time since they began.24
Henry was covering all his bases. As well as his country’s preparation for war, he had sent Christopher Mont back to Saxony to talk with Anne’s brother-in-law and members of the Schmalkaldic League about furthering their alliance. The king was not ready to join a Protestant League nor can we imagine he wanted to agree to the Confession of Augsburg but he did want allies. The League had a defensive force he could call on and so he asked that an embassy be sent to him to agree a common confession of faith.
Henry’s marriage prospects lessened. Queen Mary of Hungary had no real desire to see Christina of Denmark married to the English king anyway and wrote to Charles V in January 1539:
If the
King of England would seriously mend his ways and proceed to conclude the marriage in earnest, not merely to sow dissension between His Majesty and the King of France, this would no doubt be the most honourable alliance for the Duchess and the most advantageous for the Low Countries; but there is no evidence of this – rather the reverse, as your Ambassador in France tells us, from what he hears of the conversations held by King Henry with the French envoy in London. The Queen considers this point to be entirely settled, and it remains only to know Your Majesty’s wishes. Are we to dissemble with the English as we have done till now, which, however, is very difficult, or are we to break off negotiations altogether? This can best be done by putting forward quite reasonable terms, but which are not agreeable to the King. The Queen begs His Majesty to tell her exactly what she is to do, remembering that the King of England, when he cannot ally himself with the Emperor or in France, may seek an alliance with Cleves, and will be further alienated from religion, and may do much harm by putting himself at the head of the German princes – all of which she prays Your Majesty to consider.25
Mary received no reply and in desperation wrote again ‘I implore you tell me if I am to allow these conferences to drag on, for it is impossible to do this any longer without the most shameless dissimulation’.26 Henry’s ambassador Thomas Wriothesley, months later was still being entertained at her court, passing on messages from the king but never receiving a firm answer. Henry asked him to impress upon Mary of Hungary that ‘old age was fast creeping on, and time was slipping and flying marvellously away’.27 Wriotheseley tried a final time to get a definite answer asking her how Christina felt about the marriage given that ‘divers malicious tongues, servants of the Bishop of Rome, had dared to speak lewdly in hugger-mugger of the King’s Majesty’28 and that he had heard Christina echoed their sentiments. Mary replied she had not heard Christina talking thus and ‘that touching my niece’s affection, I dare say unto you, that if the Emperor and your master the King agree upon this marriage, she will be at the Emperor’s command’.29 It still wasn’t an answer.
Meanwhile Charles V and Francis I had signed the Treaty of Toledo agreeing that neither of them would treat with England without the other’s consent. Finally Charles V declared that Henry’s marriage to Christina could not take place without the pope’s dispensation. Given Henry’s excommunication that would not be forthcoming any time soon. The Archbishop of Canterbury could authorise the marriage in England but that would be unacceptable to Charles. Henry’s break with the Holy Roman Church was complete and ambassadors were already on their way to Cleves.
Henry VIII
Chapter Three
Journey to England
1539
Henry VIII’s deteriorating relationship with France and the Holy Roman Empire meant that now an alliance with Germany was much more appealing. John, Duke of Cleves, was not a Lutheran nor a member of the Schmalkaldic League but he was open to reform and remained independent and anti-papal. He could be a useful ally should Francis I and Charles V carry out the Pope’s threat of war and he had two unmarried daughters, Anne and Amelia.
When Henry sent Christopher Mont to John Frederick, the Duke of Saxony, to discuss England joining the League, his ambassador also had instructions to find out about the religious inclination of the Duke of Cleves and his son, William. It is not certain why he was to ask the Duke of Saxony rather than the Duke of Cleves himself but Mont, always Cromwell’s man, also received instructions to:
Diligently but secretly inquire of the beautie and qualities of the lady eldest of booth doughters of the duke of Cleves, as well as what shape, stature, proportion and complexion she is of as of her lerning actyvitie, bihauiour and honest qualities…1
If Mont heard that she ‘as might be likened unto his Majesty’2 he was to further discussions on the marriage of Henry with the eldest available daughter Anne and yet again the Princess Mary with William, her brother. Chapuys, the Spanish ambassador, reported to Charles V ‘the French ambassador told me two days ago that he had good authority for saying, though he was sworn not to tell what authority, that this King was treating to marry the Princess to the young Duke of Cleves, and thereby to league himself with the King of Denmark, the Dukes of Saxony and Prussia and the Landgrave of Hesse, offering a great sum of money, if need were, to carry on war against your Majesty’.3 Mont had instructions to deal with Burchart, the Duke of Saxony’s vice-chancellor and if he wished to see the princess’ picture he ‘shall remind him that she is a King’s daughter and that it was never seen that the pictures of persons of such degree were sent abroad. Burgartus, too, has seen her and can testify of her proportion, countenance, and beauty, and though she is only the King’s natural daughter she is endued, as all the world knows, with such beauty, learning, and virtues, that when the rest is agreed, no man would stick for any part concerning her beauty and goodness’.4 Although Henry refused to send a picture of his daughter to her prospective husband, the king could not agree to his own marriage without seeing Anne’s picture first. Mont was instructed to arrange for a portrait to be sent to England but at this time the court painter for Cleves, Lucas Cranach the elder, was unwell and unable to take up the commission.
There was a delay in further proceedings when Anne’s father died at the beginning of February, making her twenty-three-year-old brother William his successor. In March Henry decided to send Edward Carne, Nicholas Wotton and Richard Beard to find out if the new duke was amenable to his sister’s marriage to the king of England and also to ‘have a sight of his eldest sister’.5 That was easier said than done as when they did catch a glimpse of Anne and Amelia they were well covered but for ‘a part of their faces, and that under such monstrous habit and apparel, was no sight, neither of their faces nor of their person’.6 When the ambassadors complained to Olisleger, vice-chancellor to the Duke of Cleves, he responded ‘What? Would you see them naked?’7 There were portraits available by Barthel de Bruyn, a talented painter from Cologne, but as they could not verify their likeness it was decided to send Hans Holbein to give a true representation of the two sisters. Meanwhile reports were reaching Henry that Anne was ‘as well for the face, as for the whole body, above all other ladies excellent. She as far excelleth the Duchess of Saxony as the golden sun excelleth the silver moon. Every man praiseth the good virtues and honesty with shamefacedness which plainly appeareth in the gravity of her countenance’.8 But how could they have known if no one could see her? Cromwell who passed on the reports to his king made sure they were favourable but the king would take no one’s word for it. He wanted to see her likeness and soon.
Meanwhile the ambassadors were waiting for a meeting with William, Duke of Cleves. He had been severely ill in March and his vice-chancellor continued to put them off until May when he confessed that William wished to confer with his brother-in-law John Frederick about the proposed marriage and he also had concerns about the issue of a dowry. Although the ambassadors would not find out until later it was Anne’s previous betrothal to the Duke of Lorraine that William really wanted to discuss with the Duke of Saxony. Wotton and Beard reported to Cromwell:
And as for the lady Anne, he sayde, as to his frendis secretelye, that the old Duke of Cleves and the Duke of Lorayne hadde ben yn communicacion togither for the mariaige of the Marquyse, the duke of Loraynes sonne, and the said ladye Anne, and that they haddo gone so ferre that wrytinges wer made and sealyd up on hit, and that the duke of Cleves hadde payed therupon to the duke of Gheldres by the said agreement certeyn sommes of money, and hadde fulfilled on his part all thinges, saving that the lady Anne was not yet maryed to the said Marquyse. Why then, quod we, it is but yn vayne to speake enye more of my ladye Anne, for she is fast ynnough ensueryd all redye. Naye, quod the Chawncelour, not so, for these promyses wer made onelye betwixte the fathers, and the partyes as yet have not gyven theyr consentes, but ar at theyr libertye to do what they wille.9
Content that Anne was free to marry, the ambassadors continued their negotiations
but in the midst of their discussions Henry published his Act of Six Articles, a further statement of belief in the church in England that showed distinct Catholic leanings. Protestants termed it the ‘bloody whip with six strings’10 and saw it as a blow to the reform they had all hoped for. Where once John Frederick of Saxony had supported Henry’s marriage into Cleves, this act now showed him that the king of England would never fully embrace the Convention of Augsburg and join the League and so his support wavered. His opinion, although William had sought it, did not deter Anne’s brother. He still had yet to make a decision on his sister’s fate. Frustrated, the English ambassadors waited impatiently. They had hoped to be returning to England with the marriage arranged by now.
With no definitive answers by July, Dr William Petre was sent to specifically have an audience with Maria of Julich-Berg, Anne’s mother, to see if she was favourable to her daughter’s marriage as well as to view any documents relating to Anne’s pre-contract to the Duke of Lorraine. It seems that Amelia, Anne’s younger sister, may have still been in the running at this stage as Petre had instructions on how to dissemble should she be offered:
If the lady Anne is promised past retraction but that the younger daughter is free, they shall answer that the King conceived from the Chancellor’s words “that the m[arriage of] the lady Anne was not so far past but that [the King] might have had his election of both the daughters [to have] chosen her, that for her age had been most meet f[or him],” and therefore before writing the said reply to the King they would like to see the said [pacts] to learn “whether anything hath bee[n] … sithens the time of the making thereof that mig[ht be] any further impediment.” They shall press them on this; but if they persist in the overture of the youngest daughter, Wotton and Peter shall, as of themselves, say merrily that they think all should be one to the King, but as his Grace preferred the eldest they must refer again to him.11
Anne of Cleves Page 3
